Sensors

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Open AccessEditorial

Sensors Best Paper Award 2015

by Vittorio M.N. Passaro, W. Rudolf Seitz, Assefa M. Melesse, Alexander Star and Leonhard Reindl

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2228-2231; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102228 - 20 Jan 2015

Viewed by 8056

Since 2011, an annual award system was instituted to recognize outstanding Sensors papers that are related to sensing technologies and applications and meet the aims, scope and high standards of this journal [1–4]. This year, the winners were chosen by the Section Editor-in-Chiefs [...] Read more.

Since 2011, an annual award system was instituted to recognize outstanding Sensors papers that are related to sensing technologies and applications and meet the aims, scope and high standards of this journal [1–4]. This year, the winners were chosen by the Section Editor-in-Chiefs of Sensors from among all the papers published in 2011 to track citations. Reviews and full research articles were considered separately. We gladly announce that the following eight papers were awarded the Sensors Best Paper Award in 2015.[...] Full article

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Graphical abstract

1774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PET and PVC Separation with Hyperspectral Imagery

by Monica Moroni, Alessandro Mei, Alessandra Leonardi, Emanuela Lupo and Floriana La Marca

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2205-2227; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102205 - 20 Jan 2015

Cited by 96 | Viewed by 13408

Abstract

Traditional plants for plastic separation in homogeneous products employ material physical properties (for instance density). Due to the small intervals of variability of different polymer properties, the output quality may not be adequate. Sensing technologies based on hyperspectral imaging have been introduced in [...] Read more.

Traditional plants for plastic separation in homogeneous products employ material physical properties (for instance density). Due to the small intervals of variability of different polymer properties, the output quality may not be adequate. Sensing technologies based on hyperspectral imaging have been introduced in order to classify materials and to increase the quality of recycled products, which have to comply with specific standards determined by industrial applications. This paper presents the results of the characterization of two different plastic polymers—polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)—in different phases of their life cycle (primary raw materials, urban and urban-assimilated waste and secondary raw materials) to show the contribution of hyperspectral sensors in the field of material recycling. This is accomplished via near-infrared (900–1700 nm) reflectance spectra extracted from hyperspectral images acquired with a two-linear-spectrometer apparatus. Results have shown that a rapid and reliable identification of PET and PVC can be achieved by using a simple two near-infrared wavelength operator coupled to an analysis of reflectance spectra. This resulted in 100% classification accuracy. A sensor based on this identification method appears suitable and inexpensive to build and provides the necessary speed and performance required by the recycling industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 1st International Electronic Conference on Sensors and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

An Activity Recognition Model Using Inertial Sensor Nodes in a Wireless Sensor Network for Frozen Shoulder Rehabilitation Exercises

by Hsueh-Chun Lin, Shu-Yin Chiang, Kai Lee and Yao-Chiang Kan

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2181-2204; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102181 - 19 Jan 2015

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 10193

Abstract

This paper proposes a model for recognizing motions performed during rehabilitation exercises for frozen shoulder conditions. The model consists of wearable wireless sensor network (WSN) inertial sensor nodes, which were developed for this study, and enables the ubiquitous measurement of bodily motions. The [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a model for recognizing motions performed during rehabilitation exercises for frozen shoulder conditions. The model consists of wearable wireless sensor network (WSN) inertial sensor nodes, which were developed for this study, and enables the ubiquitous measurement of bodily motions. The model employs the back propagation neural network (BPNN) algorithm to compute motion data that are formed in the WSN packets; herein, six types of rehabilitation exercises were recognized. The packets sent by each node are converted into six components of acceleration and angular velocity according to three axes. Motor features such as basic acceleration, angular velocity, and derivative tilt angle were input into the training procedure of the BPNN algorithm. In measurements of thirteen volunteers, the accelerations and included angles of nodes were adopted from possible features to demonstrate the procedure. Five exercises involving simple swinging and stretching movements were recognized with an accuracy of 85%–95%; however, the accuracy with which exercises entailing spiral rotations were recognized approximately 60%. Thus, a characteristic space and enveloped spectrum improving derivative features were suggested to enable identifying customized parameters. Finally, a real-time monitoring interface was developed for practical implementation. The proposed model can be applied in ubiquitous healthcare self-management to recognize rehabilitation exercises. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Network for Pervasive Medical Care)

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Open AccessArticle

Fast Traffic Sign Recognition with a Rotation Invariant Binary Pattern Based Feature

by Shouyi Yin, Peng Ouyang, Leibo Liu, Yike Guo and Shaojun Wei

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2161-2180; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102161 - 19 Jan 2015

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 8563

Abstract

Robust and fast traffic sign recognition is very important but difficult for safe driving assistance systems. This study addresses fast and robust traffic sign recognition to enhance driving safety. The proposed method includes three stages. First, a typical Hough transformation is adopted to [...] Read more.

Robust and fast traffic sign recognition is very important but difficult for safe driving assistance systems. This study addresses fast and robust traffic sign recognition to enhance driving safety. The proposed method includes three stages. First, a typical Hough transformation is adopted to implement coarse-grained location of the candidate regions of traffic signs. Second, a RIBP (Rotation Invariant Binary Pattern) based feature in the affine and Gaussian space is proposed to reduce the time of traffic sign detection and achieve robust traffic sign detection in terms of scale, rotation, and illumination. Third, the techniques of ANN (Artificial Neutral Network) based feature dimension reduction and classification are designed to reduce the traffic sign recognition time. Compared with the current work, the experimental results in the public datasets show that this work achieves robustness in traffic sign recognition with comparable recognition accuracy and faster processing speed, including training speed and recognition speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Integrated Semantics Service Platform for the Internet of Things: A Case Study of a Smart Office

by Minwoo Ryu, Jaeho Kim and Jaeseok Yun

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2137-2160; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102137 - 19 Jan 2015

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 14007

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) allows machines and devices in the world to connect with each other and generate a huge amount of data, which has a great potential to provide useful knowledge across service domains. Combining the context of IoT with semantic [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things (IoT) allows machines and devices in the world to connect with each other and generate a huge amount of data, which has a great potential to provide useful knowledge across service domains. Combining the context of IoT with semantic technologies, we can build integrated semantic systems to support semantic interoperability. In this paper, we propose an integrated semantic service platform (ISSP) to support ontological models in various IoT-based service domains of a smart city. In particular, we address three main problems for providing integrated semantic services together with IoT systems: semantic discovery, dynamic semantic representation, and semantic data repository for IoT resources. To show the feasibility of the ISSP, we develop a prototype service for a smart office using the ISSP, which can provide a preset, personalized office environment by interpreting user text input via a smartphone. We also discuss a scenario to show how the ISSP-based method would help build a smart city, where services in each service domain can discover and exploit IoT resources that are wanted across domains. We expect that our method could eventually contribute to providing people in a smart city with more integrated, comprehensive services based on semantic interoperability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Smart Cities)

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Open AccessArticle

Sensor Data Security Level Estimation Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks

by Alex Ramos and Raimir Holanda Filho

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2104-2136; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102104 - 19 Jan 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8051

Abstract

Due to their increasing dissemination, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have become the target of more and more sophisticated attacks, even capable of circumventing both attack detection and prevention mechanisms. This may cause WSN users, who totally trust these security mechanisms, to think that [...] Read more.

Due to their increasing dissemination, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have become the target of more and more sophisticated attacks, even capable of circumventing both attack detection and prevention mechanisms. This may cause WSN users, who totally trust these security mechanisms, to think that a sensor reading is secure, even when an adversary has corrupted it. For that reason, a scheme capable of estimating the security level (SL) that these mechanisms provide to sensor data is needed, so that users can be aware of the actual security state of this data and can make better decisions on its use. However, existing security estimation schemes proposed for WSNs fully ignore detection mechanisms and analyze solely the security provided by prevention mechanisms. In this context, this work presents the sensor data security estimator (SDSE), a new comprehensive security estimation scheme for WSNs. SDSE is designed for estimating the sensor data security level based on security metrics that analyze both attack prevention and detection mechanisms. In order to validate our proposed scheme, we have carried out extensive simulations that show the high accuracy of SDSE estimates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things)

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Open AccessArticle

The Enhanced Formaldehyde-Sensing Properties of P3HT-ZnO Hybrid Thin Film OTFT Sensor and Further Insight into Its Stability

by Huiling Tai, Xian Li, Yadong Jiang, Guangzhong Xie and Xiaosong Du

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2086-2103; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102086 - 19 Jan 2015

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 10457

Abstract

A thin-film transistor (TFT) having an organic–inorganic hybrid thin film combines the advantage of TFT sensors and the enhanced sensing performance of hybrid materials. In this work, poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)-zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles’ hybrid thin film was fabricated by a spraying process as the [...] Read more.

A thin-film transistor (TFT) having an organic–inorganic hybrid thin film combines the advantage of TFT sensors and the enhanced sensing performance of hybrid materials. In this work, poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)-zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles’ hybrid thin film was fabricated by a spraying process as the active layer of TFT for the employment of a room temperature operated formaldehyde (HCHO) gas sensor. The effects of ZnO nanoparticles on morphological and compositional features, electronic and HCHO-sensing properties of P3HT-ZnO thin film were systematically investigated. The results showed that P3HT-ZnO hybrid thin film sensor exhibited considerable improvement of sensing response (more than two times) and reversibility compared to the pristine P3HT film sensor. An accumulation p-n heterojunction mechanism model was developed to understand the mechanism of enhanced sensing properties by incorporation of ZnO nanoparticles. X-ray photoelectron spectroscope (XPS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) characterizations were used to investigate the stability of the sensor in-depth, which reveals the performance deterioration was due to the changes of element composition and the chemical state of hybrid thin film surface induced by light and oxygen. Our study demonstrated that P3HT-ZnO hybrid thin film TFT sensor is beneficial in the advancement of novel room temperature HCHO sensing technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Sensing Pollution in Air, Water, and Soil)

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Open AccessReview

A Survey of Online Activity Recognition Using Mobile Phones

by Muhammad Shoaib, Stephan Bosch, Ozlem Durmaz Incel, Hans Scholten and Paul J.M. Havinga

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2059-2085; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102059 - 19 Jan 2015

Cited by 416 | Viewed by 25620

Abstract

Physical activity recognition using embedded sensors has enabled many context-aware applications in different areas, such as healthcare. Initially, one or more dedicated wearable sensors were used for such applications. However, recently, many researchers started using mobile phones for this purpose, since these ubiquitous [...] Read more.

Physical activity recognition using embedded sensors has enabled many context-aware applications in different areas, such as healthcare. Initially, one or more dedicated wearable sensors were used for such applications. However, recently, many researchers started using mobile phones for this purpose, since these ubiquitous devices are equipped with various sensors, ranging from accelerometers to magnetic field sensors. In most of the current studies, sensor data collected for activity recognition are analyzed offline using machine learning tools. However, there is now a trend towards implementing activity recognition systems on these devices in an online manner, since modern mobile phones have become more powerful in terms of available resources, such as CPU, memory and battery. The research on offline activity recognition has been reviewed in several earlier studies in detail. However, work done on online activity recognition is still in its infancy and is yet to be reviewed. In this paper, we review the studies done so far that implement activity recognition systems on mobile phones and use only their on-board sensors. We discuss various aspects of these studies. Moreover, we discuss their limitations and present various recommendations for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue HCI In Smart Environments)

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Open AccessArticle

Hyperspectral Imagery Super-Resolution by Compressive Sensing Inspired Dictionary Learning and Spatial-Spectral Regularization

by Wei Huang, Liang Xiao, Hongyi Liu and Zhihui Wei

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2041-2058; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102041 - 19 Jan 2015

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6621

Abstract

Due to the instrumental and imaging optics limitations, it is difficult to acquire high spatial resolution hyperspectral imagery (HSI). Super-resolution (SR) imagery aims at inferring high quality images of a given scene from degraded versions of the same scene. This paper proposes a [...] Read more.

Due to the instrumental and imaging optics limitations, it is difficult to acquire high spatial resolution hyperspectral imagery (HSI). Super-resolution (SR) imagery aims at inferring high quality images of a given scene from degraded versions of the same scene. This paper proposes a novel hyperspectral imagery super-resolution (HSI-SR) method via dictionary learning and spatial-spectral regularization. The main contributions of this paper are twofold. First, inspired by the compressive sensing (CS) framework, for learning the high resolution dictionary, we encourage stronger sparsity on image patches and promote smaller coherence between the learned dictionary and sensing matrix. Thus, a sparsity and incoherence restricted dictionary learning method is proposed to achieve higher efficiency sparse representation. Second, a variational regularization model combing a spatial sparsity regularization term and a new local spectral similarity preserving term is proposed to integrate the spectral and spatial-contextual information of the HSI. Experimental results show that the proposed method can effectively recover spatial information and better preserve spectral information. The high spatial resolution HSI reconstructed by the proposed method outperforms reconstructed results by other well-known methods in terms of both objective measurements and visual evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Double Cluster Heads Model for Secure and Accurate Data Fusion in Wireless Sensor Networks

by Jun-Song Fu and Yun Liu

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2021-2040; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102021 - 19 Jan 2015

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5657

Abstract

Secure and accurate data fusion is an important issue in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and has been extensively researched in the literature. In this paper, by combining clustering techniques, reputation and trust systems, and data fusion algorithms, we propose a novel cluster-based data [...] Read more.

Secure and accurate data fusion is an important issue in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and has been extensively researched in the literature. In this paper, by combining clustering techniques, reputation and trust systems, and data fusion algorithms, we propose a novel cluster-based data fusion model called Double Cluster Heads Model (DCHM) for secure and accurate data fusion in WSNs. Different from traditional clustering models in WSNs, two cluster heads are selected after clustering for each cluster based on the reputation and trust system and they perform data fusion independently of each other. Then, the results are sent to the base station where the dissimilarity coefficient is computed. If the dissimilarity coefficient of the two data fusion results exceeds the threshold preset by the users, the cluster heads will be added to blacklist, and the cluster heads must be reelected by the sensor nodes in a cluster. Meanwhile, feedback is sent from the base station to the reputation and trust system, which can help us to identify and delete the compromised sensor nodes in time. Through a series of extensive simulations, we found that the DCHM performed very well in data fusion security and accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Design and Testing of an Agricultural Implement for Underground Application of Rodenticide Bait

by Hugo Malón, A. Javier Aguirre, Antonio Boné, Mariano Vidal and F. Javier García-Ramos

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 2006-2020; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150102006 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6867

Abstract

An agricultural implement for underground application of rodenticide bait to control the Mediterranean pocket gopher (Microtus Duodecimcostatus) in fruit orchards has been designed and tested. The main objective of this research was to design and test the implement by using the [...] Read more.

An agricultural implement for underground application of rodenticide bait to control the Mediterranean pocket gopher (Microtus Duodecimcostatus) in fruit orchards has been designed and tested. The main objective of this research was to design and test the implement by using the finite element method (FEM) and considering a range of loads generated on most commonly used furrow openers in agricultural implements. As a second step, the prototype was tested in the field by analysing the effects of forward speed and application depth on the mechanical behaviour of the implement structure. The FEM was used in the design phase and a prototype was manufactured. The structural strains on the prototype chassis under working conditions were tested by using strain gauges to validate the design phase. Three forward speeds (4.5, 5.5, and 7.0 km/h), three application depths (0.12, 0.15, and 0.17 m), and two types of soil (clayey-silty-loam and clayey-silty-sandy) were considered. The prototype was validated successfully by analysing the information obtained from the strain gauges. The Von Mises stresses indicated a safety coefficient of 1.9 for the most critical load case. Although both forward speed and application depth had a significant effect on the stresses generated on the chassis, the latter parameter critically affected the structural behaviour of the implement. The effects of the application depth on the strains were linear such that strains increased with depth. In contrast, strains remained roughly constant regardless of variation in the forward speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in Agriculture and Forestry)

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Open AccessArticle

Design and Fabrication of Interdigital Nanocapacitors Coated with HfO₂

by Gabriel González, Eleazar Samuel Kolosovas-Machuca, Edgar López-Luna, Heber Hernández-Arriaga and Francisco Javier González

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1998-2005; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101998 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 16079

Abstract

In this article nickel interdigital capacitors were fabricated on top of silicon substrates. The capacitance of the interdigital capacitor was optimized by coating the electrodes with a 60 nm layer of HfO₂. An analytical solution of the capacitance was compared to [...] Read more.

In this article nickel interdigital capacitors were fabricated on top of silicon substrates. The capacitance of the interdigital capacitor was optimized by coating the electrodes with a 60 nm layer of HfO₂. An analytical solution of the capacitance was compared to electromagnetic simulations using COMSOL and with experimental measurements. Results show that modeling interdigital capacitors using Finite Element Method software such as COMSOL is effective in the design and electrical characterization of these transducers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Nanomaterials and Devices for Biomedical Engineering and Sensing Applications' Papers Selected from the Energy Materials Nanotechnology (EMN) Fall Meeting, November 22–25, 2014, Orlando, USA)

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Open AccessArticle

A Novel Joint Spatial-Code Clustered Interference Alignment Scheme for Large-Scale Wireless Sensor Networks

by Zhilu Wu, Lihui Jiang, Guanghui Ren, Nan Zhao and Yaqin Zhao

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1964-1997; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101964 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5380

Abstract

Interference alignment (IA) has been put forward as a promising technique which can mitigate interference and effectively increase the throughput of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). However, the number of users is strictly restricted by the IA feasibility condition, and the interference leakage will [...] Read more.

Interference alignment (IA) has been put forward as a promising technique which can mitigate interference and effectively increase the throughput of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). However, the number of users is strictly restricted by the IA feasibility condition, and the interference leakage will become so strong that the quality of service will degrade significantly when there are more users than that IA can support. In this paper, a novel joint spatial-code clustered (JSCC)-IA scheme is proposed to solve this problem. In the proposed scheme, the users are clustered into several groups so that feasible IA can be achieved within each group. In addition, each group is assigned a pseudo noise (PN) code in order to suppress the inter-group interference via the code dimension. The analytical bit error rate (BER) expressions of the proposed JSCC-IA scheme are formulated for the systems with identical and different propagation delays, respectively. To further improve the performance of the JSCC-IA scheme in asymmetric networks, a random grouping selection (RGS) algorithm is developed to search for better grouping combinations. Numerical results demonstrate that the proposed JSCC-IA scheme is capable of accommodating many more users to communicate simultaneously in the same frequency band with better performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

A Novel Vibration Mode Testing Method for Cylindrical Resonators Based on Microphones

by Yongmeng Zhang, Yulie Wu, Xuezhong Wu, Xiang Xi and Jianqiu Wang

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1954-1963; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101954 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6776

Abstract

Non-contact testing is an important method for the study of the vibrating characteristic of cylindrical resonators. For the vibratory cylinder gyroscope excited by piezo-electric electrodes, mode testing of the cylindrical resonator is difficult. In this paper, a novel vibration testing method for cylindrical [...] Read more.

Non-contact testing is an important method for the study of the vibrating characteristic of cylindrical resonators. For the vibratory cylinder gyroscope excited by piezo-electric electrodes, mode testing of the cylindrical resonator is difficult. In this paper, a novel vibration testing method for cylindrical resonators is proposed. This method uses a MEMS microphone, which has the characteristics of small size and accurate directivity, to measure the vibration of the cylindrical resonator. A testing system was established, then the system was used to measure the vibration mode of the resonator. The experimental results show that the orientation resolution of the node of the vibration mode is better than 0.1°. This method also has the advantages of low cost and easy operation. It can be used in vibration testing and provide accurate results, which is important for the study of the vibration mode and thermal stability of vibratory cylindrical gyroscopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Fluorescent Cellular Assay for Screening Agents Inhibiting Pseudomonas aeruginosa Adherence

by Libuše Nosková, Božena Kubíčková, Lucie Vašková, Barbora Bláhová, Michaela Wimmerová, Marie Stiborová and Petr Hodek

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1945-1953; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101945 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6067

Abstract

Antibodies against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) lectin, PAIIL, which is a virulence factor mediating the bacteria binding to epithelium cells, were prepared in chickens and purified from egg yolks. To examine these antibodies as a prophylactic agent preventing the adhesion of PA we developed [...] Read more.

Antibodies against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) lectin, PAIIL, which is a virulence factor mediating the bacteria binding to epithelium cells, were prepared in chickens and purified from egg yolks. To examine these antibodies as a prophylactic agent preventing the adhesion of PA we developed a well plate assay based on fluorescently labeled bacteria and immortalized epithelium cell lines derived from normal and cystic fibrosis (CF) human lungs. The antibodies significantly inhibited bacteria adhesion (up to 50%) in both cell lines. In agreement with in vivo data, our plate assay showed higher susceptibility of CF cells towards the PA adhesion as compared to normal epithelium. This finding proved the reliability of the developed experimental system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from XIV. Workshop of Physical Chemists and Electrochemists)

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Open AccessArticle

Improvement of the Trapezoid Method Using Raw Landsat Image Digital Count Data for Soil Moisture Estimation in the Texas (USA) High Plains

by Sanaz Shafian and Stephan J. Maas

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1925-1944; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101925 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6419

Abstract

Variations in soil moisture strongly affect surface energy balances, regional runoff, land erosion and vegetation productivity (i.e., potential crop yield). Hence, the estimation of soil moisture is very valuable in the social, economic, humanitarian (food security) and environmental segments of society. [...] Read more.

Variations in soil moisture strongly affect surface energy balances, regional runoff, land erosion and vegetation productivity (i.e., potential crop yield). Hence, the estimation of soil moisture is very valuable in the social, economic, humanitarian (food security) and environmental segments of society. Extensive efforts to exploit the potential of remotely sensed observations to help quantify this complex variable are ongoing. This study aims at developing a new index, the Thermal Ground cover Moisture Index (TGMI), for estimating soil moisture content. This index is based on empirical parameterization of the relationship between raw image digital count (DC) data in the thermal infrared spectral band and ground cover (determined from raw image digital count data in the red and near-infrared spectral bands).The index uses satellite-derived information only, and the potential for its operational application is therefore great. This study was conducted in 18 commercial agricultural fields near Lubbock, TX (USA). Soil moisture was measured in these fields over two years and statistically compared to corresponding values of TGMI determined from Landsat image data. Results indicate statistically significant correlations between TGMI and field measurements of soil moisture (R² = 0.73, RMSE = 0.05, MBE = 0.17 and AAE = 0.049), suggesting that soil moisture can be estimated using this index. It was further demonstrated that maps of TGMI developed from Landsat imagery could be constructed to show the relative spatial distribution of soil moisture across a region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

A Cognitively-Motivated Framework for Partial Face Recognition in Unconstrained Scenarios

by João C. Monteiro and Jaime S. Cardoso

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1903-1924; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101903 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5632

Abstract

Humans perform and rely on face recognition routinely and effortlessly throughout their daily lives. Multiple works in recent years have sought to replicate this process in a robust and automatic way. However, it is known that the performance of face recognition algorithms is [...] Read more.

Humans perform and rely on face recognition routinely and effortlessly throughout their daily lives. Multiple works in recent years have sought to replicate this process in a robust and automatic way. However, it is known that the performance of face recognition algorithms is severely compromised in non-ideal image acquisition scenarios. In an attempt to deal with conditions, such as occlusion and heterogeneous illumination, we propose a new approach motivated by the global precedent hypothesis of the human brain’s cognitive mechanisms of perception. An automatic modeling of SIFT keypoint descriptors using a Gaussian mixture model (GMM)-based universal background model method is proposed. A decision is, then, made in an innovative hierarchical sense, with holistic information gaining precedence over a more detailed local analysis. The algorithm was tested on the ORL, ARand Extended Yale B Face databases and presented state-of-the-art performance for a variety of experimental setups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Development of Fabric-Based Chemical Gas Sensors for Use as Wearable Electronic Noses

by Thara Seesaard, Panida Lorwongtragool and Teerakiat Kerdcharoen

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1885-1902; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101885 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 86 | Viewed by 12780

Abstract

Novel gas sensors embroidered into fabric substrates based on polymers/ SWNT-COOH nanocomposites were proposed in this paper, aiming for their use as a wearable electronic nose (e-nose). The fabric-based chemical gas sensors were fabricated by two main processes: drop coating and embroidery. Four [...] Read more.

Novel gas sensors embroidered into fabric substrates based on polymers/ SWNT-COOH nanocomposites were proposed in this paper, aiming for their use as a wearable electronic nose (e-nose). The fabric-based chemical gas sensors were fabricated by two main processes: drop coating and embroidery. Four potential polymers (PVC, cumene-PSMA, PSE and PVP)/functionalized-SWCNT sensing materials were deposited onto interdigitated electrodes previously prepared by embroidering conductive thread on a fabric substrate to make an optimal set of sensors. After preliminary trials of the obtained sensors, it was found that the sensors yielded a electrical resistance in the region of a few kilo-Ohms. The sensors were tested with various volatile compounds such as ammonium hydroxide, ethanol, pyridine, triethylamine, methanol and acetone, which are commonly found in the wastes released from the human body. These sensors were used to detect and discriminate between the body odors of different regions and exist in various forms such as the urine, armpit and exhaled breath odor. Based on a simple pattern recognition technique, we have shown that the proposed fabric-based chemical gas sensors can discriminate the human body odor from two persons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle

Resource-Efficient Fusion over Fading and Non-Fading Reporting Channels for Cooperative Spectrum Sensing

by Dayan Adionel Guimarães and Guilherme Pedro Aquino

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1861-1884; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101861 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5067

Abstract

Recently, a novel resource-efficient technique for the reporting channel transmissions in cooperative spectrum sensing was proposed. In this technique, secondary users are allowed to simultaneously send their local decisions to the fusion center, saving time and frequency resources. Expressions for the probabilities of [...] Read more.

Recently, a novel resource-efficient technique for the reporting channel transmissions in cooperative spectrum sensing was proposed. In this technique, secondary users are allowed to simultaneously send their local decisions to the fusion center, saving time and frequency resources. Expressions for the probabilities of detection and false alarm for the unitary-gain AWGN reporting channels were derived, while simulation results were given for both the AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels. Here, we provide an expression that is applicable to AWGN channels with different real-valued gains and to time-varying real-valued gains. A simple suboptimum receiver is proposed for the general complex-valued fading and non-fading channels, with an improved performance in the low signal-to-noise ratio condition. Numerical results are shown for both the AWGN and Rayleigh fading reporting channels, demonstrating the accuracy of the derived expressions and the attractive performance of the proposed receiver. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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Open AccessArticle

Inertial Sensor Self-Calibration in a Visually-Aided Navigation Approach for a Micro-AUV

by Francisco Bonin-Font, Miquel Massot-Campos, Pep Lluis Negre-Carrasco, Gabriel Oliver-Codina and Joan P. Beltran

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1825-1860; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101825 - 16 Jan 2015

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 8705

Abstract

This paper presents a new solution for underwater observation, image recording, mapping and 3D reconstruction in shallow waters. The platform, designed as a research and testing tool, is based on a small underwater robot equipped with a MEMS-based IMU, two stereo cameras and [...] Read more.

This paper presents a new solution for underwater observation, image recording, mapping and 3D reconstruction in shallow waters. The platform, designed as a research and testing tool, is based on a small underwater robot equipped with a MEMS-based IMU, two stereo cameras and a pressure sensor. The data given by the sensors are fused, adjusted and corrected in a multiplicative error state Kalman filter (MESKF), which returns a single vector with the pose and twist of the vehicle and the biases of the inertial sensors (the accelerometer and the gyroscope). The inclusion of these biases in the state vector permits their self-calibration and stabilization, improving the estimates of the robot orientation. Experiments in controlled underwater scenarios and in the sea have demonstrated a satisfactory performance and the capacity of the vehicle to operate in real environments and in real time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems)

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1326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Fast and Precise Indoor Localization Algorithm Based on an Online Sequential Extreme Learning Machine

by Han Zou, Xiaoxuan Lu, Hao Jiang and Lihua Xie

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1804-1824; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101804 - 15 Jan 2015

Cited by 128 | Viewed by 10316

Abstract

Nowadays, developing indoor positioning systems (IPSs) has become an attractive research topic due to the increasing demands on location-based service (LBS) in indoor environments. WiFi technology has been studied and explored to provide indoor positioning service for years in view of the wide [...] Read more.

Nowadays, developing indoor positioning systems (IPSs) has become an attractive research topic due to the increasing demands on location-based service (LBS) in indoor environments. WiFi technology has been studied and explored to provide indoor positioning service for years in view of the wide deployment and availability of existing WiFi infrastructures in indoor environments. A large body of WiFi-based IPSs adopt fingerprinting approaches for localization. However, these IPSs suffer from two major problems: the intensive costs of manpower and time for offline site survey and the inflexibility to environmental dynamics. In this paper, we propose an indoor localization algorithm based on an online sequential extreme learning machine (OS-ELM) to address the above problems accordingly. The fast learning speed of OS-ELM can reduce the time and manpower costs for the offline site survey. Meanwhile, its online sequential learning ability enables the proposed localization algorithm to adapt in a timely manner to environmental dynamics. Experiments under specific environmental changes, such as variations of occupancy distribution and events of opening or closing of doors, are conducted to evaluate the performance of OS-ELM. The simulation and experimental results show that the proposed localization algorithm can provide higher localization accuracy than traditional approaches, due to its fast adaptation to various environmental dynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Indoor Mapping and Navigation)

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4271 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pose Estimation with a Kinect for Ergonomic Studies: Evaluation of the Accuracy Using a Virtual Mannequin

by Pierre Plantard, Edouard Auvinet, Anne-Sophie Le Pierres and Franck Multon

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1785-1803; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101785 - 15 Jan 2015

Cited by 92 | Viewed by 10548

Abstract

Analyzing human poses with a Kinect is a promising method to evaluate potentials risks of musculoskeletal disorders at workstations. In ecological situations, complex 3D poses and constraints imposed by the environment make it difficult to obtain reliable kinematic information. Thus, being able to [...] Read more.

Analyzing human poses with a Kinect is a promising method to evaluate potentials risks of musculoskeletal disorders at workstations. In ecological situations, complex 3D poses and constraints imposed by the environment make it difficult to obtain reliable kinematic information. Thus, being able to predict the potential accuracy of the measurement for such complex 3D poses and sensor placements is challenging in classical experimental setups. To tackle this problem, we propose a new evaluation method based on a virtual mannequin. In this study, we apply this method to the evaluation of joint positions (shoulder, elbow, and wrist), joint angles (shoulder and elbow), and the corresponding RULA (a popular ergonomics assessment grid) upper-limb score for a large set of poses and sensor placements. Thanks to this evaluation method, more than 500,000 configurations have been automatically tested, which would be almost impossible to evaluate with classical protocols. The results show that the kinematic information obtained by the Kinect software is generally accurate enough to fill in ergonomic assessment grids. However inaccuracy strongly increases for some specific poses and sensor positions. Using this evaluation method enabled us to report configurations that could lead to these high inaccuracies. As a supplementary material, we provide a software tool to help designers to evaluate the expected accuracy of this sensor for a set of upper-limb configurations. Results obtained with the virtual mannequin are in accordance with those obtained from a real subject for a limited set of poses and sensor placements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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1055 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Trends in Wireless Visual Sensor Networks When Exploiting Prioritization

by Daniel G. Costa, Luiz Affonso Guedes, Francisco Vasques and Paulo Portugal

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1760-1784; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101760 - 15 Jan 2015

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6983

Abstract

The development of wireless sensor networks for control and monitoring functions has created a vibrant investigation scenario, where many critical topics, such as communication efficiency and energy consumption, have been investigated in the past few years. However, when sensors are endowed with low-power [...] Read more.

The development of wireless sensor networks for control and monitoring functions has created a vibrant investigation scenario, where many critical topics, such as communication efficiency and energy consumption, have been investigated in the past few years. However, when sensors are endowed with low-power cameras for visual monitoring, a new scope of challenges is raised, demanding new research efforts. In this context, the resource-constrained nature of sensor nodes has demanded the use of prioritization approaches as a practical mechanism to lower the transmission burden of visual data over wireless sensor networks. Many works in recent years have considered local-level prioritization parameters to enhance the overall performance of those networks, but global-level policies can potentially achieve better results in terms of visual monitoring efficiency. In this paper, we make a broad review of some recent works on priority-based optimizations in wireless visual sensor networks. Moreover, we envisage some research trends when exploiting prioritization, potentially fostering the development of promising optimizations for wireless sensor networks composed of visual sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Visual Sensor Networks)

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1949 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Embroidered Electrode with Silver/Titanium Coating for Long-Term ECG Monitoring

by Markus Weder, Dirk Hegemann, Martin Amberg, Markus Hess, Luciano F. Boesel, Roger Abächerli, Veronika R. Meyer and René M. Rossi

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1750-1759; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101750 - 15 Jan 2015

Cited by 105 | Viewed by 13995

Abstract

For the long-time monitoring of electrocardiograms, electrodes must be skin-friendly and non-irritating, but in addition they must deliver leads without artifacts even if the skin is dry and the body is moving. Today’s adhesive conducting gel electrodes are not suitable for such applications. [...] Read more.

For the long-time monitoring of electrocardiograms, electrodes must be skin-friendly and non-irritating, but in addition they must deliver leads without artifacts even if the skin is dry and the body is moving. Today’s adhesive conducting gel electrodes are not suitable for such applications. We have developed an embroidered textile electrode from polyethylene terephthalate yarn which is plasma-coated with silver for electrical conductivity and with an ultra-thin titanium layer on top for passivation. Two of these electrodes are embedded into a breast belt. They are moisturized with a very low amount of water vapor from an integrated reservoir. The combination of silver, titanium and water vapor results in an excellent electrode chemistry. With this belt the long-time monitoring of electrocardiography (ECG) is possible at rest as well as when the patient is moving. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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1513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Image Stabilization Optical System Using Deformable Freeform Mirrors

by Qun Hao, Xuemin Cheng, Jiqiang Kang and Yuhua Jiang

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1736-1749; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101736 - 15 Jan 2015

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7205

Abstract

An image stabilization optical system using deformable freeform mirrors is proposed that enables the ray sets to couple dynamically in the object and image space. It aims to correct image blurring and degradation when there is relative movement between the imaging optical axis [...] Read more.

An image stabilization optical system using deformable freeform mirrors is proposed that enables the ray sets to couple dynamically in the object and image space. It aims to correct image blurring and degradation when there is relative movement between the imaging optical axis and the object. In this method, Fermat’s principle and matrix methods are used to describe the optical path of the entire optical system with a shift object plane and a fixed corresponding image plane in the carrier coordinate system. A constant optical path length is determined for each ray set, so the correspondence between the object and the shift free image point is used to calculate the solution to the points on the surface profile of the deformable mirrors (DMs). Off-axis three-mirror anastigmats are used to demonstrate the benefits of optical image stabilization with one- and two-deformable mirrors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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2110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trajectory-Based Visual Localization in Underwater Surveying Missions

by Antoni Burguera, Francisco Bonin-Font and Gabriel Oliver

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1708-1735; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101708 - 14 Jan 2015

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7675

Abstract

We present a new vision-based localization system applied to an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) with limited sensing and computation capabilities. The traditional EKF-SLAM approaches are usually expensive in terms of execution time; the approach presented in this paper strengthens this method by adopting [...] Read more.

We present a new vision-based localization system applied to an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) with limited sensing and computation capabilities. The traditional EKF-SLAM approaches are usually expensive in terms of execution time; the approach presented in this paper strengthens this method by adopting a trajectory-based schema that reduces the computational requirements. The pose of the vehicle is estimated using an extended Kalman filter (EKF), which predicts the vehicle motion by means of a visual odometer and corrects these predictions using the data associations (loop closures) between the current frame and the previous ones. One of the most important steps in this procedure is the image registration method, as it reinforces the data association and, thus, makes it possible to close loops reliably. Since the use of standard EKFs entail linearization errors that can distort the vehicle pose estimations, the approach has also been tested using an iterated Kalman filter (IEKF). Experiments have been conducted using a real underwater vehicle in controlled scenarios and in shallow sea waters, showing an excellent performance with very small errors, both in the vehicle pose and in the overall trajectory estimates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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5419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An X-Band Radar System for Bathymetry and Wave Field Analysis in a Harbour Area

by Giovanni Ludeno, Ferdinando Reale, Fabio Dentale, Eugenio Pugliese Carratelli, Antonio Natale, Francesco Soldovieri and Francesco Serafino

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1691-1707; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101691 - 14 Jan 2015

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 7716

Abstract

Marine X-band radar based systems are well tested to provide information about sea state and bathymetry. It is also well known that complex geometries and non-uniform bathymetries provide a much bigger challenge than offshore scenarios. In order to tackle this issue a retrieval [...] Read more.

Marine X-band radar based systems are well tested to provide information about sea state and bathymetry. It is also well known that complex geometries and non-uniform bathymetries provide a much bigger challenge than offshore scenarios. In order to tackle this issue a retrieval method is proposed, based on spatial partitioning of the data and the application of the Normalized Scalar Product (NSP), which is an innovative procedure for the joint estimation of bathymetry and surface currents. The strategy is then applied to radar data acquired around a harbour entrance, and results show that the reconstructed bathymetry compares well with ground truth data obtained by an echo-sounder campaign, thus proving the reliability of the whole procedure. The spectrum thus retrieved is then analysed to show the evidence of reflected waves from the harbour jetties, as confirmed by chain of hydrodynamic models of the sea wave field. The possibility of using a land based radar to reveal sea wave reflection is entirely new and may open up new operational applications of the system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Italy 2014)

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964 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Base Station Placement for Wireless Sensor Networks with Successive Interference Cancellation

by Lei Shi, Jianjun Zhang, Yi Shi, Xu Ding and Zhenchun Wei

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1676-1690; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101676 - 14 Jan 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6132

Abstract

We consider the base station placement problem for wireless sensor networks with successive interference cancellation (SIC) to improve throughput. We build a mathematical model for SIC. Although this model cannot be solved directly, it enables us to identify a necessary condition for SIC [...] Read more.

We consider the base station placement problem for wireless sensor networks with successive interference cancellation (SIC) to improve throughput. We build a mathematical model for SIC. Although this model cannot be solved directly, it enables us to identify a necessary condition for SIC on distances from sensor nodes to the base station. Based on this relationship, we propose to divide the feasible region of the base station into small pieces and choose a point within each piece for base station placement. The point with the largest throughput is identified as the solution. The complexity of this algorithm is polynomial. Simulation results show that this algorithm can achieve about 25% improvement compared with the case that the base station is placed at the center of the network coverage area when using SIC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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2539 KiB

Open AccessReview

Design of Surface Modifications for Nanoscale Sensor Applications

by Erik Reimhult and Fredrik Höök

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1635-1675; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101635 - 14 Jan 2015

Cited by 78 | Viewed by 12532

Abstract

Nanoscale biosensors provide the possibility to miniaturize optic, acoustic and electric sensors to the dimensions of biomolecules. This enables approaching single-molecule detection and new sensing modalities that probe molecular conformation. Nanoscale sensors are predominantly surface-based and label-free to exploit inherent advantages of physical [...] Read more.

Nanoscale biosensors provide the possibility to miniaturize optic, acoustic and electric sensors to the dimensions of biomolecules. This enables approaching single-molecule detection and new sensing modalities that probe molecular conformation. Nanoscale sensors are predominantly surface-based and label-free to exploit inherent advantages of physical phenomena allowing high sensitivity without distortive labeling. There are three main criteria to be optimized in the design of surface-based and label-free biosensors: (i) the biomolecules of interest must bind with high affinity and selectively to the sensitive area; (ii) the biomolecules must be efficiently transported from the bulk solution to the sensor; and (iii) the transducer concept must be sufficiently sensitive to detect low coverage of captured biomolecules within reasonable time scales. The majority of literature on nanoscale biosensors deals with the third criterion while implicitly assuming that solutions developed for macroscale biosensors to the first two, equally important, criteria are applicable also to nanoscale sensors. We focus on providing an introduction to and perspectives on the advanced concepts for surface functionalization of biosensors with nanosized sensor elements that have been developed over the past decades (criterion (iii)). We review in detail how patterning of molecular films designed to control interactions of biomolecules with nanoscale biosensor surfaces creates new possibilities as well as new challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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2066 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ethanol Microsensors with a Readout Circuit Manufactured Using the CMOS-MEMS Technique

by Ming-Zhi Yang and Ching-Liang Dai

Sensors 2015, 15(1), 1623-1634; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150101623 - 14 Jan 2015

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6149

Abstract

The design and fabrication of an ethanol microsensor integrated with a readout circuit on-a-chip using the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-microelectro -mechanical system (MEMS) technique are investigated. The ethanol sensor is made up of a heater, a sensitive film and interdigitated electrodes. The [...] Read more.

The design and fabrication of an ethanol microsensor integrated with a readout circuit on-a-chip using the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-microelectro -mechanical system (MEMS) technique are investigated. The ethanol sensor is made up of a heater, a sensitive film and interdigitated electrodes. The sensitive film is tin dioxide that is prepared by the sol-gel method. The heater is located under the interdigitated electrodes, and the sensitive film is coated on the interdigitated electrodes. The sensitive film needs a working temperature of 220 °C. The heater is employed to provide the working temperature of sensitive film. The sensor generates a change in capacitance when the sensitive film senses ethanol gas. A readout circuit is used to convert the capacitance variation of the sensor into the output frequency. Experiments show that the sensitivity of the ethanol sensor is 0.9 MHz/ppm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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