Sensors

12 pages, 1112 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electropolymerized, Molecularly Imprinted Polymer on a Screen-Printed Electrode—A Simple, Fast, and Disposable Voltammetric Sensor for Trazodone

by Isabel Seguro, Patrícia Rebelo, João G. Pacheco and Cristina Delerue-Matos

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2819; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072819 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3315

Abstract

In recent years, analytical chemistry has been facing new challenges, particularly in developing low-cost, green, and easy-to-reproduce methods. In this work, a simple, reproducible, and low-cost electrochemical (voltammetric) molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) sensor was designed specifically for the detection of trazodone (TZD). Trazodone [...] Read more.

In recent years, analytical chemistry has been facing new challenges, particularly in developing low-cost, green, and easy-to-reproduce methods. In this work, a simple, reproducible, and low-cost electrochemical (voltammetric) molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) sensor was designed specifically for the detection of trazodone (TZD). Trazodone (TZD) is an antidepressant drug consumed worldwide since the 1970s. By combining electropolymerization (surface imprinting) with screen-printed electrodes (SPCEs), the sensor is easy to prepare, is environmentally friendly (uses small amounts of reagents), and can be used for in situ analysis through integration with small, portable devices. The MIP was obtained using cyclic voltammetry (CV), using 4-aminobenzoic acid (4-ABA) as the functional monomer in the presence of TZF molecules in 0.1 M HCl. Non-imprinted control was also constructed in the absence of TZD. Both polymers were characterized using CV, and TZD detection was performed with DPV using the oxidation of TZD. The polymerization conditions were studied and optimized. Comparing the TZD signal for MIP/SPCE and NIP/SPCE, an imprinting factor of 71 was estimated, indicating successful imprinting of the TZD molecules within the polymeric matrix. The analytical response was linear in the range of 5–80 µM, and an LOD of 1.6 µM was estimated. Selectivity was evaluated by testing the sensor for molecules with a similar structure to TZD, and the ability of MIP/SPCE to selectively bind to TZD was proven. The sensor was applied to spiked tap water samples and human serum with good recoveries and allowed for a fast analysis (around 30 min). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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20 pages, 3367 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biased Pressure: Cyclic Reinforcement Learning Model for Intelligent Traffic Signal Control

by Bunyodbek Ibrokhimov, Young-Joo Kim and Sanggil Kang

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2818; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072818 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2742

Abstract

Existing inefficient traffic signal plans are causing traffic congestions in many urban areas. In recent years, many deep reinforcement learning (RL) methods have been proposed to control traffic signals in real-time by interacting with the environment. However, most of existing state-of-the-art RL methods [...] Read more.

Existing inefficient traffic signal plans are causing traffic congestions in many urban areas. In recent years, many deep reinforcement learning (RL) methods have been proposed to control traffic signals in real-time by interacting with the environment. However, most of existing state-of-the-art RL methods use complex state definition and reward functions and/or neglect the real-world constraints such as cyclic phase order and minimum/maximum duration for each traffic phase. These issues make existing methods infeasible to implement for real-world applications. In this paper, we propose an RL-based multi-intersection traffic light control model with a simple yet effective combination of state, reward, and action definitions. The proposed model uses a novel pressure method called Biased Pressure (BP). We use a state-of-the-art advantage actor-critic learning mechanism in our model. Due to the decentralized nature of our state, reward, and action definitions, we achieve a scalable model. The performance of the proposed method is compared with related methods using both synthetic and real-world datasets. Experimental results show that our method outperforms the existing cyclic phase control methods with a significant margin in terms of throughput and average travel time. Moreover, we conduct ablation studies to justify the superiority of the BP method over the existing pressure methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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23 pages, 3171 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A One-Stage Ensemble Framework Based on Convolutional Autoencoder for Remaining Useful Life Estimation

by Yong-Keun Park, Min-Kyung Kim and Jumyung Um

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2817; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072817 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2323

Abstract

As the legislative pressure to reduce energy consumption is increasing, data analysis of power consumption is critical in the production planning of manufacturing facilities. In legacy studies, a machine conducting a single continuous operation has been mainly observed for power estimation. However, the [...] Read more.

As the legislative pressure to reduce energy consumption is increasing, data analysis of power consumption is critical in the production planning of manufacturing facilities. In legacy studies, a machine conducting a single continuous operation has been mainly observed for power estimation. However, the production machine of a modularized line, which conducts complex discrete operations, is more like the actual factory system than an identical simple machine. During the information collection of this kind of production line, it is important to interpret mixed signals from multiple machines to ensure that there is no reduction in the information quality due to noise and signal fusion and discrete events. A data pipeline—from data collection (from different sources) to preprocessing, data conversion, synchronization, and deep learning classification—to estimate the total power use of the future process plan, is proposed herein. The pipeline also establishes an auto-labeled data set of individual operations that contributes to building an power estimation model without manual data preprocessing. The proposed system is applied to a modular factory, connected with machine controllers, using standardized protocols individually and linked to a centralized power monitoring system. Specifically, a robot arm cell was investigated to evaluate the pipeline, with the result of the power profile being synchronized with the robot program. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internet of Things for Industrial Applications)

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19 pages, 6473 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Two-Dimensional Phononic Crystal Based Sensor for Characterization of Mixtures and Heterogeneous Liquids

by Nikolay Mukhin, Mykhailo Kutia, Alexander Aman, Ulrike Steinmann and Ralf Lucklum

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2816; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072816 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3523

Abstract

We show new approaches to developing acoustic liquid sensors based on phononic crystals. The proposed phononic crystal integrates fluidic elements. A solid block with periodic cylindrical holes contains a defect—a liquid-filled cylindrical cavity. We pay attention to acoustic excitation and the readout of [...] Read more.

We show new approaches to developing acoustic liquid sensors based on phononic crystals. The proposed phononic crystal integrates fluidic elements. A solid block with periodic cylindrical holes contains a defect—a liquid-filled cylindrical cavity. We pay attention to acoustic excitation and the readout of the axisymmetric cylindrical resonator eigenmode of the liquid-filled defect in the middle of the phononic crystal structure. This mode solves the challenge of mechanical energy losses due to liquid viscosity. We also analyze the coupling effects between oscillations of liquid and solid systems and consider coupling issues between piezoelectric transducers and the liquid-filled cavity resonator. The numerical simulation of the propagation of acoustic waves through the phononic crystal sensor was carried out in COMSOL Multiphysics Software. The phononic crystal was made of stainless steel with mechanically drilled holes and was fabricated for experimental verification. We show that a tuning of the solid–liquid vibrational modes coupling is the key to an enhanced level of sensitivity to liquid properties. Besides (homogeneous) water–propanol mixtures, experimental studies were carried out on (disperse) water–fuel emulsions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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13 pages, 19010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Resulting Effect of Flow Pulsations on Calibration Constant of Acoustic Path in Ultrasonic Flowmeters

by Anna Goltsman and Ilya Saushin

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2815; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072815 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2264

Abstract

The present paper compares, for the first time, the regimes of a pulsating turbulent flow in a smooth pipe in terms of 0.001 ≤ ω⁺ ≤ 0.0346 and 0.16 ≤ β ≤ 0.63 at Re ≈ 7000 with the uncertainty in estimating [...] Read more.

The present paper compares, for the first time, the regimes of a pulsating turbulent flow in a smooth pipe in terms of 0.001 ≤ ω⁺ ≤ 0.0346 and 0.16 ≤ β ≤ 0.63 at Re ≈ 7000 with the uncertainty in estimating the flow rate by an ultrasonic flowmeter. It was revealed that the classification of pulsating flow regimes according to the dimensionless angular frequency ω⁺ does not have a direct relation with the K parameter equal to the ratio of the phase-average calibration constant in pulsating flow to the corresponding value in steady flow. The results of data processing showed that K depends on the relative amplitude of pulsations β and the position of the chord of the ultrasonic beam trajectory (L/R is distance L from the pipe center to the chord to the pipe radius R). In the coordinates β and L/R, there is a rather wide area where the uncertainty in flow rate estimation of pulsating flows should not exceed 0.5%. An increase in β or L/R leads to an increase in measurement uncertainty, which in the limiting case β, L/R → 1 can reach 5% or more. Favorable and unfavorable areas of the pipe section were identified when scanning pulsating flows and the effectiveness of using multi-path scanning schemes was estimated to reduce the resulting effect of flow pulsations on flow measurement uncertainty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Systems Engineering: Theory and Applications)

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21 pages, 1814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Power, Flexible Sensor Arrays with Solderless Board-to-Board Connectors for Monitoring Soil Deformation and Temperature

by Stijn Wielandt, Sebastian Uhlemann, Sylvain Fiolleau and Baptiste Dafflon

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2814; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072814 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3868

Abstract

Landslides are a global and frequent natural hazard, affecting many communities and infrastructure networks. Technological solutions are needed for long-term, large-scale condition monitoring of infrastructure earthworks or natural slopes. However, current instruments for slope stability monitoring are often costly, require a complex installation [...] Read more.

Landslides are a global and frequent natural hazard, affecting many communities and infrastructure networks. Technological solutions are needed for long-term, large-scale condition monitoring of infrastructure earthworks or natural slopes. However, current instruments for slope stability monitoring are often costly, require a complex installation process and/or data processing schemes, or have poor resolution. Wireless sensor networks comprising low-power, low-cost sensors have been shown to be a crucial part of landslide early warning systems. Here, we present the development of a novel sensing approach that uses linear arrays of three-axis accelerometers for monitoring changes in sensor inclination, and thus the surrounding soil’s deformation. By combining these deformation measurements with depth-resolved temperature measurements, we can link our data to subsurface thermal–hydrological regimes where relevant. In this research, we present a configuration of cascaded I2C sensors that (i) have ultra-low power consumption and (ii) enable an adjustable probe length. From an electromechanical perspective, we developed a novel board-to-board connection method that enables narrow, semi-flexible sensor arrays and a streamlined assembly process. The low-cost connection method relies on a specific FR4 printed circuit board design that allows board-to-board press fitting without using electromechanical components or solder connections. The sensor assembly is placed in a thin, semi-flexible tube (inner diameter 6.35 mm) that is filled with an epoxy compound. The resulting sensor probe is connected to an AA-battery-powered data logger with wireless connectivity. We characterize the system’s electromechanical properties and investigate the accuracy of deformation measurements. Our experiments, performed with probes up to 1.8 m long, demonstrate long-term connector stability, as well as probe mechanical flexibility. Furthermore, our accuracy analysis indicates that deformation measurements can be performed with a 0.390 mm resolution and a 95% confidence interval of ±0.73 mm per meter of probe length. This research shows the suitability of low-cost accelerometer arrays for distributed soil stability monitoring. In comparison with emerging low-cost measurements of surface displacement, our approach provides depth-resolved deformation, which can inform about shallow sliding surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Measurements in Geotechnical Engineering)

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20 pages, 842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Software Architecture Patterns for Extending Sensing Capabilities and Data Formatting in Mobile Sensing

by Jakob E. Bardram

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2813; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072813 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3586

Abstract

Mobile sensing—that is, the ability to unobtrusively collect sensor data from built-in phone and attached wearable sensors—have proven to be a powerful approach to understanding the behavior, well-being, and health of people in their everyday life. Different platforms for mobile sensing have been [...] Read more.

Mobile sensing—that is, the ability to unobtrusively collect sensor data from built-in phone and attached wearable sensors—have proven to be a powerful approach to understanding the behavior, well-being, and health of people in their everyday life. Different platforms for mobile sensing have been presented and significant knowledge on how to facilitate mobile sensing has been accumulated. However, most existing mobile sensing platforms only support a fixed set of mobile phone and wearable sensors which are `built into’ the platform’s generic `study app’. This creates some fundamental challenges for the creation and approval of application-specific mobile sensing studies, since there is little support for adapting the sensing capabilities to what is needed for a specific study. Moreover, most existing platforms use their own proprietary data formats and there is no standardization in how data are collected and in what formats. This poses some fundamental challenges to realizing the vision of using mobile sensing in health applications, since mobile sensing data collected across different phones and studies cannot be compared, thus hampering generalizability and reproducibility across studies. This paper presents two software architecture patterns enabling (i) dynamic extension of mobile sensing to incorporate new sensing capabilities, such as collecting data from a wearable sensor, and (ii) handling real-time transformation of data into standardized data formats. These software patterns are derived from our work on CARP Mobile Sensing (CAMS), which is a cross-platform (Android/iOS) software architecture providing a reactive and unified programming model that emphasizes extensibility. This paper shows how the framework uses the two software architecture patterns to add sampling support for an electrocardiography (ECG) device and support data transformation into the new Open mHealth (OMH) data format. The paper also presents data from a small study, demonstrating the robustness and feasibility of using CAMS for data collection and transformation in mobile sensing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Passive Sensing for Health)

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21 pages, 931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design-Time Reliability Prediction Model for Component-Based Software Systems

by Awad Ali, Mohammed Bakri Bashir, Alzubair Hassan, Rafik Hamza, Samar M. Alqhtani, Tawfeeg Mohmmed Tawfeeg and Adil Yousif

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2812; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072812 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2627

Abstract

Software reliability is prioritised as the most critical quality attribute. Reliability prediction models participate in the prevention of software failures which can cause vital events and disastrous consequences in safety-critical applications or even in businesses. Predicting reliability during design allows software developers to [...] Read more.

Software reliability is prioritised as the most critical quality attribute. Reliability prediction models participate in the prevention of software failures which can cause vital events and disastrous consequences in safety-critical applications or even in businesses. Predicting reliability during design allows software developers to avoid potential design problems, which can otherwise result in reconstructing an entire system when discovered at later stages of the software development life-cycle. Several reliability models have been built to predict reliability during software development. However, several issues still exist in these models. Current models suffer from a scalability issue referred to as the modeling of large systems. The scalability solutions usually come at a high computational cost, requiring solutions. Secondly, consideration of the nature of concurrent applications in reliability prediction is another issue. We propose a reliability prediction model that enhances scalability by introducing a system-level scenario synthesis mechanism that mitigates complexity. Additionally, the proposed model supports modeling of the nature of concurrent applications through adaption of formal statistical distribution toward scenario combination. The proposed model was evaluated using sensors-based case studies. The experimental results show the effectiveness of the proposed model from the view of computational cost reduction compared to similar models. This reduction is the main parameter for scalability enhancement. In addition, the presented work can enable system developers to know up to which load their system will be reliable via observation of the reliability value in several running scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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25 pages, 940 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Privacy Paradigm for Improving Serial Data Privacy

by Ayesha Shaukat, Adeel Anjum, Saif U. R. Malik, Munam Ali Shah and Carsten Maple

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2811; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072811 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2415

Abstract

Protecting the privacy of individuals is of utmost concern in today’s society, as inscribed and governed by the prevailing privacy laws, such as GDPR. In serial data, bits of data are continuously released, but their combined effect may result in a privacy breach [...] Read more.

Protecting the privacy of individuals is of utmost concern in today’s society, as inscribed and governed by the prevailing privacy laws, such as GDPR. In serial data, bits of data are continuously released, but their combined effect may result in a privacy breach in the whole serial publication. Protecting serial data is crucial for preserving them from adversaries. Previous approaches provide privacy for relational data and serial data, but many loopholes exist when dealing with multiple sensitive values. We address these problems by introducing a novel privacy approach that limits the risk of privacy disclosure in republication and gives better privacy with much lower perturbation rates. Existing techniques provide a strong privacy guarantee against attacks on data privacy; however, in serial publication, the chances of attack still exist due to the continuous addition and deletion of data. In serial data, proper countermeasures for tackling attacks such as correlation attacks have not been taken, due to which serial publication is still at risk. Moreover, protecting privacy is a significant task due to the critical absence of sensitive values while dealing with multiple sensitive values. Due to this critical absence, signatures change in every release, which is a reason for attacks. In this paper, we introduce a novel approach in order to counter the composition attack and the transitive composition attack and we prove that the proposed approach is better than the existing state-of-the-art techniques. Our paper establishes the result with a systematic examination of the republication dilemma. Finally, we evaluate our work using benchmark datasets, and the results show the efficacy of the proposed technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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21 pages, 2630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Fuzzy-Based Context-Aware Misbehavior Detecting Scheme for Detecting Rogue Nodes in Vehicular Ad Hoc Network

by Fuad A. Ghaleb, Faisal Saeed, Eman H. Alkhammash, Norah Saleh Alghamdi and Bander Ali Saleh Al-rimy

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2810; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072810 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2799

Abstract

A vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is an emerging technology that improves road safety, traffic efficiency, and passenger comfort. VANETs’ applications rely on co-operativeness among vehicles by periodically sharing their context information, such as position speed and acceleration, among others, at a high [...] Read more.

A vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is an emerging technology that improves road safety, traffic efficiency, and passenger comfort. VANETs’ applications rely on co-operativeness among vehicles by periodically sharing their context information, such as position speed and acceleration, among others, at a high rate due to high vehicles mobility. However, rogue nodes, which exploit the co-operativeness feature and share false messages, can disrupt the fundamental operations of any potential application and cause the loss of people’s lives and properties. Unfortunately, most of the current solutions cannot effectively detect rogue nodes due to the continuous context change and the inconsideration of dynamic data uncertainty during the identification. Although there are few context-aware solutions proposed for VANET, most of these solutions are data-centric. A vehicle is considered malicious if it shares false or inaccurate messages. Such a rule is fuzzy and not consistently accurate due to the dynamic uncertainty of the vehicular context, which leads to a poor detection rate. To this end, this study proposed a fuzzy-based context-aware detection model to improve the overall detection performance. A fuzzy inference system is constructed to evaluate the vehicles based on their generated information. The output of the proposed fuzzy inference system is used to build a dynamic context reference based on the proposed fuzzy inference system. Vehicles are classified into either honest or rogue nodes based on the deviation of their evaluation scores calculated using the proposed fuzzy inference system from the context reference. Extensive experiments were carried out to evaluate the proposed model. Results show that the proposed model outperforms the state-of-the-art models. It achieves a 7.88% improvement in the overall performance, while a 16.46% improvement is attained for detection rate compared to the state-of-the-art model. The proposed model can be used to evict the rogue nodes, and thus improve the safety and traffic efficiency of crewed or uncrewed vehicles designed for different environments, land, naval, or air. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Vehicular Networks and Communication Systems)

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32 pages, 3724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Would You Trust Driverless Service? Formation of Pedestrian’s Trust and Attitude Using Non-Verbal Social Cues

by Suji Choi, Soyeon Kim, Mingi Kwak, Jaewan Park, Subin Park, Dongjoon Kwak, Hyun Woo Lee and Sangwon Lee

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2809; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072809 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3201

Abstract

Despite the widespread application of Autonomous Vehicles (AV) to various services, there has been relatively little research carried out on pedestrian–AV interaction and trust within the context of service provided by AV. This study explores the communication design strategy promoting a pedestrian’s trust [...] Read more.

Despite the widespread application of Autonomous Vehicles (AV) to various services, there has been relatively little research carried out on pedestrian–AV interaction and trust within the context of service provided by AV. This study explores the communication design strategy promoting a pedestrian’s trust and positive attitude to driverless services within the context of pedestrian–AV interaction using non-verbal social cues. An empirical study was conducted with an experimental VR environment to measure participants’ intimacy, trust, and brand attitude toward AV. Further understanding of their social interaction experiences was explored through semi-structured interviews. As a result of the study, the interaction effect of social cues was found, and it was revealed that brand attitude was formed by the direct effects of intimacy and trust as well as the indirect effects of intimacy through trust’s mediation. Furthermore, ‘Conceptual Definition of Space’ was identified to generate differences in the interplay among intimacy, trust, and brand attitude according to social cues. Quantitative and qualitative results were synthesized to discuss implications considering the service context. Practical implications were also addressed suggesting specific design strategies for utilizing the sociality of AV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Computer Interaction Application for Autonomous Vehicles)

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27 pages, 2090 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

A Systematic Review of the Transthoracic Impedance during Cardiac Defibrillation

by Yasmine Heyer, Daniela Baumgartner and Christian Baumgartner

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2808; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072808 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6025

Abstract

For cardiac defibrillator testing and design purposes, the range and limits of the human TTI is of high interest. Potential influencing factors regarding the electronic configurations, the electrode/tissue interface and patient characteristics were identified and analyzed. A literature survey based on 71 selected [...] Read more.

For cardiac defibrillator testing and design purposes, the range and limits of the human TTI is of high interest. Potential influencing factors regarding the electronic configurations, the electrode/tissue interface and patient characteristics were identified and analyzed. A literature survey based on 71 selected articles was used to review and assess human TTI and the influencing factors found. The human TTI extended from 12 to 212

Ω

in the literature selected. Excluding outliers and pediatric measurements, the mean TTI recordings ranged from 51 to 112

Ω

with an average TTI of 76.7

Ω

under normal distribution. The wide range of human impedance can be attributed to 12 different influencing factors, including shock waveforms and protocols, coupling devices, electrode size and pressure, electrode position, patient age, gender, body dimensions, respiration and lung volume, blood hemoglobin saturation and different pathologies. The coupling device, electrode size and electrode pressure have the greatest influence on TTI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Surface Physiological Sensing for Advanced Cardiovascular Healthcare)

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20 pages, 2789 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Motorway Bottleneck Probability Estimation in Connected Vehicles Environment Using Speed Transition Matrices

by Leo Tišljarić, Filip Vrbanić, Edouard Ivanjko and Tonči Carić

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2807; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072807 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3130

Abstract

Increased development of the urban areas leads to intensive transport service demand, especially on urban motorways. To increase traffic flow and reduce congestion, motorway traffic bottlenecks caused by high traffic demand need to be efficiently resolved using Intelligent Transport Systems services. Communication technology [...] Read more.

Increased development of the urban areas leads to intensive transport service demand, especially on urban motorways. To increase traffic flow and reduce congestion, motorway traffic bottlenecks caused by high traffic demand need to be efficiently resolved using Intelligent Transport Systems services. Communication technology development that supports Connected Vehicles (CVs), which act as an active mobile sensor for collecting traffic data, provides an opportunity to harness the large datasets to develop novel methods regarding traffic bottlenecks detection. This paper presents a speed transition matrix based model for bottleneck probability estimation on motorways. The method is based on the computation of the speed at the vehicle transition point between consecutive motorway segments, which forms a traffic pattern that is represented using transition matrices. The main feature extracted from the traffic patterns was the center of mass, whose position is used as an input to the fuzzy-based system for bottleneck probability estimation. The proposed method is evaluated on four different simulated motorway traffic scenarios: (i) traffic collision site, (ii) short recurring bottleneck, (iii) long recurring bottleneck, and (iv) moving bottleneck. The method achieves comparable bottleneck detection results on every scenario, with a total accuracy of 92% on the validation dataset. The results indicate possible implementation of the method in the motorway traffic environment with a high CVs penetration rate using them as the sensory input data for the control systems based on the machine learning algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Vehicular Networks and Communication Systems)

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23 pages, 7395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detecting Trivariate Associations in High-Dimensional Datasets

by Chuanlu Liu, Shuliang Wang, Hanning Yuan, Yingxu Dang and Xiaojia Liu

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2806; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072806 - 6 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1925

Abstract

Detecting correlations in high-dimensional datasets plays an important role in data mining and knowledge discovery. While recent works achieve promising results, detecting multivariable correlations especially trivariate associations still remains a challenge. For example, maximal information coefficient (MIC) introduces generality and equitability to detect [...] Read more.

Detecting correlations in high-dimensional datasets plays an important role in data mining and knowledge discovery. While recent works achieve promising results, detecting multivariable correlations especially trivariate associations still remains a challenge. For example, maximal information coefficient (MIC) introduces generality and equitability to detect bivariate correlations but fails to detect multivariable correlation. To solve the problem mentioned above, we proposed quadratic optimized trivariate information coefficient (QOTIC). Specifically, QOTIC equitably measures dependence among three variables. Our contributions are three-fold: (1) we present a novel quadratic optimization procedure to approach the correlation with high accuracy; (2) QOTIC exceeds existing methods in generality and equitability as QOTIC has general test functions and is applicable in detecting multivariable correlation in datasets of various sample sizes and noise levels; (3) QOTIC achieved both higher accuracy and higher time-efficiency than previous methods. Extensive experiments demonstrate the excellent performance of QOTIC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Big Data Analytics and Intelligent Computation to Advance Novel Applications)

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12 pages, 825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Head Pitch Angular Velocity Discriminates (Sub-)Acute Neck Pain Patients and Controls Assessed with the DidRen Laser Test

by Renaud Hage, Fabien Buisseret, Martin Houry and Frédéric Dierick

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2805; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072805 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3160

Abstract

Understanding neck pain is an important societal issue. Kinematic data from sensors may help to gain insight into the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with neck pain through a quantitative sensorimotor assessment of one patient. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential [...] Read more.

Understanding neck pain is an important societal issue. Kinematic data from sensors may help to gain insight into the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with neck pain through a quantitative sensorimotor assessment of one patient. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential usefulness of artificial intelligence with several machine learning (ML) algorithms in assessing neck sensorimotor performance. Angular velocity and acceleration measured by an inertial sensor placed on the forehead during the DidRen laser test in thirty-eight acute and subacute non-specific neck pain (ANSP) patients were compared to forty-two healthy control participants (HCP). Seven supervised ML algorithms were chosen for the predictions. The most informative kinematic features were computed using Sequential Feature Selection methods. The best performing algorithm is the Linear Support Vector Machine with an accuracy of 82% and Area Under Curve of 84%. The best discriminative kinematic feature between ANSP patients and HCP is the first quartile of head pitch angular velocity. This study has shown that supervised ML algorithms could be used to classify ANSP patients and identify discriminatory kinematic features potentially useful for clinicians in the assessment and monitoring of the neck sensorimotor performance in ANSP patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors Applied in Movement Analysis)

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14 pages, 6533 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Combined Elevation Angle and C/N0 Weighting Method for GNSS PPP on Xiaomi MI8 Smartphones

by Yanjie Li, Changsheng Cai and Zhenyu Xu

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2804; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072804 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3949

Abstract

Traditionally, an elevation-angle-dependent weighting method is usually used for Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning with a geodetic receiver. As smartphones adopt linearly polarized antenna and low-cost GNSS chips, different GNSS observation properties are exhibited. As a result, a carrier-to-noise ratio (C/N0)-dependent weighting [...] Read more.

Traditionally, an elevation-angle-dependent weighting method is usually used for Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning with a geodetic receiver. As smartphones adopt linearly polarized antenna and low-cost GNSS chips, different GNSS observation properties are exhibited. As a result, a carrier-to-noise ratio (C/N0)-dependent weighting method is mostly used for smartphone-based GNSS positioning. However, the C/N0 is subject to the effects of the observation environment, resulting in an unstable observation weight. In this study, we propose a combined elevation angle and C/N0 weighting method for smartphone-based GNSS precise point positioning (PPP) by normalizing the C/N0-derived variances to the scale of the elevation-angle-derived variances. The proposed weighting method is validated in two kinematic PPP tests with different satellite visibility conditions. Compared with the elevation-angle-only and C/N0-only weighting methods, the combined weighting method can effectively enhance the smartphone-based PPP accuracy in a three-dimensional position by 22.7% and 24.2% in an open-sky area, and by 52.0% and 26.0% in a constrained visibility area, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precise Positioning with Smartphones)

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18 pages, 1779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decision-Based Fusion for Vehicle Matching

by Sally Ghanem, Ryan A. Kerekes and Ryan Tokola

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2803; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072803 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1862

Abstract

In this work, a framework is proposed for decision fusion utilizing features extracted from vehicle images and their detected wheels. Siamese networks are exploited to extract key signatures from pairs of vehicle images. Our approach then examines the extent of reliance between signatures [...] Read more.

In this work, a framework is proposed for decision fusion utilizing features extracted from vehicle images and their detected wheels. Siamese networks are exploited to extract key signatures from pairs of vehicle images. Our approach then examines the extent of reliance between signatures generated from vehicle images to robustly integrate different similarity scores and provide a more informed decision for vehicle matching. To that end, a dataset was collected that contains hundreds of thousands of side-view vehicle images under different illumination conditions and elevation angles. Experiments show that our approach could achieve better matching accuracy by taking into account the decisions made by a whole-vehicle or wheels-only matching network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Fusion and Machine Learning in Sensor Networks)

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18 pages, 3701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Tower Networks for Efficient Temperature Forecasting from Multiple Data Sources

by Siri S. Eide, Michael A. Riegler, Hugo L. Hammer and John Bjørnar Bremnes

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2802; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072802 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2104

Abstract

Many data related problems involve handling multiple data streams of different types at the same time. These problems are both complex and challenging, and researchers often end up using only one modality or combining them via a late fusion based approach. To tackle [...] Read more.

Many data related problems involve handling multiple data streams of different types at the same time. These problems are both complex and challenging, and researchers often end up using only one modality or combining them via a late fusion based approach. To tackle this challenge, we develop and investigate the usefulness of a novel deep learning method called tower networks. This method is able to learn from multiple input data sources at once. We apply the tower network to the problem of short-term temperature forecasting. First, we compare our method to a number of meteorological baselines and simple statistical approaches. Further, we compare the tower network with two core network architectures that are often used, namely the convolutional neural network (CNN) and convolutional long short-term memory (convLSTM). The methods are compared for the task of weather forecasting performance, and the deep learning methods are also compared in terms of memory usage and training time. The tower network performs well in comparison both with the meteorological baselines, and with the other core architectures. Compared with the state-of-the-art operational Norwegian weather forecasting service, yr.no, the tower network has an overall 11% smaller root mean squared forecasting error. For the core architectures, the tower network documents competitive performance and proofs to be more robust compared to CNN and convLSTM models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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17 pages, 6309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Feature Fusion and Optimization-Based Approach for Stomach Disease Classification

by Farah Mohammad and Muna Al-Razgan

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2801; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072801 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3231

Abstract

Cancer is the deadliest disease among all the diseases and the main cause of human mortality. Several types of cancer sicken the human body and affect organs. Among all the types of cancer, stomach cancer is the most dangerous disease that spreads rapidly [...] Read more.

Cancer is the deadliest disease among all the diseases and the main cause of human mortality. Several types of cancer sicken the human body and affect organs. Among all the types of cancer, stomach cancer is the most dangerous disease that spreads rapidly and needs to be diagnosed at an early stage. The early diagnosis of stomach cancer is essential to reduce the mortality rate. The manual diagnosis process is time-consuming, requires many tests, and the availability of an expert doctor. Therefore, automated techniques are required to diagnose stomach infections from endoscopic images. Many computerized techniques have been introduced in the literature but due to a few challenges (i.e., high similarity among the healthy and infected regions, irrelevant features extraction, and so on), there is much room to improve the accuracy and reduce the computational time. In this paper, a deep-learning-based stomach disease classification method employing deep feature extraction, fusion, and optimization using WCE images is proposed. The proposed method comprises several phases: data augmentation performed to increase the dataset images, deep transfer learning adopted for deep features extraction, feature fusion performed on deep extracted features, fused feature matrix optimized with a modified dragonfly optimization method, and final classification of the stomach disease was performed. The features extraction phase employed two pre-trained deep CNN models (Inception v3 and DenseNet-201) performing activation on feature derivation layers. Later, the parallel concatenation was performed on deep-derived features and optimized using the meta-heuristic method named the dragonfly algorithm. The optimized feature matrix was classified by employing machine-learning algorithms and achieved an accuracy of 99.8% on the combined stomach disease dataset. A comparison has been conducted with state-of-the-art techniques and shows improved accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomedical Sensors)

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19 pages, 1063 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances and Applications of Rapid Microbial Assessment from a Food Safety Perspective

by George Pampoukis, Anastasia E. Lytou, Anthoula A. Argyri, Efstathios Z. Panagou and George-John E. Nychas

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2800; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072800 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3937

Abstract

Unsafe food is estimated to cause 600 million cases of foodborne disease, annually. Thus, the development of methods that could assist in the prevention of foodborne diseases is of high interest. This review summarizes the recent progress toward rapid microbial assessment through (i) [...] Read more.

Unsafe food is estimated to cause 600 million cases of foodborne disease, annually. Thus, the development of methods that could assist in the prevention of foodborne diseases is of high interest. This review summarizes the recent progress toward rapid microbial assessment through (i) spectroscopic techniques, (ii) spectral imaging techniques, (iii) biosensors and (iv) sensors designed to mimic human senses. These methods often produce complex and high-dimensional data that cannot be analyzed with conventional statistical methods. Multivariate statistics and machine learning approaches seemed to be valuable for these methods so as to “translate” measurements to microbial estimations. However, a great proportion of the models reported in the literature misuse these approaches, which may lead to models with low predictive power under generic conditions. Overall, all the methods showed great potential for rapid microbial assessment. Biosensors are closer to wide-scale implementation followed by spectroscopic techniques and then by spectral imaging techniques and sensors designed to mimic human senses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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16 pages, 18986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Thermal Gradients in High-Temperature Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Tests

by Juliano Scholz Slongo, Jefferson Gund, Thiago Alberto Rigo Passarin, Daniel Rodrigues Pipa, Júlio Endress Ramos, Lucia Valeria Arruda and Flávio Neves Junior

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2799; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072799 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2790

Abstract

Ultrasonic inspection techniques and non-destructive tests are widely applied in evaluating products and equipment in the oil, petrochemical, steel, naval, and energy industries. These methods are well established and efficient for inspection procedures at room temperature. However, errors can be observed in the [...] Read more.

Ultrasonic inspection techniques and non-destructive tests are widely applied in evaluating products and equipment in the oil, petrochemical, steel, naval, and energy industries. These methods are well established and efficient for inspection procedures at room temperature. However, errors can be observed in the positioning and sizing of the flaws when such techniques are used during inspection procedures under high working temperatures. In such situations, the temperature gradients generate acoustic anisotropy and consequently distortion of the ultrasonic beams. Failure to consider such distortions in ultrasonic signals can result, in extreme situations, in mistaken decision making by inspectors and professionals responsible for guaranteeing product quality or the integrity of the evaluated equipment. In this scenario, this work presents a mathematical tool capable of mitigating positioning errors through the correction of focal laws. For the development of the tool, ray tracing concepts are used, as well as a model of heat propagation in solids and an experimentally defined linear approximation of dependence between sound speed and temperature. Using the focal law correction tool, the relative firing delays of the active elements are calculated considering the temperature gradients along the sonic path, and the results demonstrate a reduction of more than

68 %

in the error of flaw positioning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Sensing and Imaging in Ultrasound)

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23 pages, 3087 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zero-Day Malware Detection and Effective Malware Analysis Using Shapley Ensemble Boosting and Bagging Approach

by Rajesh Kumar and Geetha Subbiah

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2798; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072798 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6265

Abstract

Software products from all vendors have vulnerabilities that can cause a security concern. Malware is used as a prime exploitation tool to exploit these vulnerabilities. Machine learning (ML) methods are efficient in detecting malware and are state-of-art. The effectiveness of ML models can [...] Read more.

Software products from all vendors have vulnerabilities that can cause a security concern. Malware is used as a prime exploitation tool to exploit these vulnerabilities. Machine learning (ML) methods are efficient in detecting malware and are state-of-art. The effectiveness of ML models can be augmented by reducing false negatives and false positives. In this paper, the performance of bagging and boosting machine learning models is enhanced by reducing misclassification. Shapley values of features are a true representation of the amount of contribution of features and help detect top features for any prediction by the ML model. Shapley values are transformed to probability scale to correlate with a prediction value of ML model and to detect top features for any prediction by a trained ML model. The trend of top features derived from false negative and false positive predictions by a trained ML model can be used for making inductive rules. In this work, the best performing ML model in bagging and boosting is determined by the accuracy and confusion matrix on three malware datasets from three different periods. The best performing ML model is used to make effective inductive rules using waterfall plots based on the probability scale of features. This work helps improve cyber security scenarios by effective detection of false-negative zero-day malware. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Cyber Situational Awareness in Computer Networks)

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37 pages, 1872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Meaningful Test and Evaluation of Indoor Localization Systems in Semi-Controlled Environments

by Jakob Schyga, Johannes Hinckeldeyn and Jochen Kreutzfeldt

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2797; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072797 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3727

Abstract

Despite their enormous potential, the use of indoor localization systems (ILS) remains seldom. One reason is the lack of market transparency and stakeholders’ trust in the systems’ performance as a consequence of insufficient use of test and evaluation (T&E) methodologies. The heterogeneous nature [...] Read more.

Despite their enormous potential, the use of indoor localization systems (ILS) remains seldom. One reason is the lack of market transparency and stakeholders’ trust in the systems’ performance as a consequence of insufficient use of test and evaluation (T&E) methodologies. The heterogeneous nature of ILS, their influences, and their applications pose various challenges for the design of a methodology that provides meaningful results. Methodologies for building-wide testing exist, but their use is mostly limited to associated indoor localization competitions. In this work, the T&E 4iLoc Framework is proposed—a methodology for T&E of indoor localization systems in semi-controlled environments based on a system-level and black-box approach. In contrast to building-wide testing, T&E in semi-controlled environments, such as test halls, is characterized by lower costs, higher reproducibility, and better comparability of the results. The limitation of low transferability to real-world applications is addressed by an application-driven design approach. The empirical validation of the T&E 4iLoc Framework, based on the examination of a contour-based light detection and ranging (LiDAR) ILS, an ultra wideband ILS, and a camera-based ILS for the application of automated guided vehicles in warehouse operation, demonstrates the benefits of T&E with the T&E 4iLoc Framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation)

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17 pages, 771 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Neural Network-Based Model for Predicting Saybolt Color of Petroleum Products

by Nurliana Farhana Salehuddin, Madiah Binti Omar, Rosdiazli Ibrahim and Kishore Bingi

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2796; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072796 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3230

Abstract

Saybolt color is a standard measurement scale used to determine the quality of petroleum products and the appropriate refinement process. However, the current color measurement methods are mostly laboratory-based, thereby consuming much time and being costly. Hence, we designed an automated model based [...] Read more.

Saybolt color is a standard measurement scale used to determine the quality of petroleum products and the appropriate refinement process. However, the current color measurement methods are mostly laboratory-based, thereby consuming much time and being costly. Hence, we designed an automated model based on an artificial neural network to predict Saybolt color. The network has been built with five input variables, density, kinematic viscosity, sulfur content, cetane index, and total acid number; and one output, i.e., Saybolt color. Two backpropagation algorithms with different transfer functions and neurons number were tested. Mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), and coefficient of determination (R²) were used to assess the performance of the developed model. Additionally, the results of the ANN model are compared with the multiple linear regression (MLR). The results demonstrate that the ANN with the Levenberg–Marquart algorithm, tangent sigmoid transfer function, and three neurons achieved the highest performance (R² = 0.995, MAE = 1.000, and RMSE = 1.658) in predicting the Saybolt color. The ANN model appeared to be superior to MLR (R² = 0.830). Hence, this shows the potential of the ANN model as an effective method with which to predict Saybolt color in real time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Sensors and Machine Learning)

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28 pages, 9288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of a Planner-Based Intervention to Facilitate Diet Behaviour Change in Type 2 Diabetes

by Kevin A. Cradock, Leo R. Quinlan, Francis M. Finucane, Heather L. Gainforth, Kathleen A. Martin Ginis, Elizabeth B.-N. Sanders and Gearóid ÓLaighin

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2795; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072795 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4523

Abstract

Diet behaviour is influenced by the interplay of the physical and social environment as well as macro-level and individual factors. In this study, we focus on diet behaviour at an individual level and describe the design of a behaviour change artefact to support [...] Read more.

Diet behaviour is influenced by the interplay of the physical and social environment as well as macro-level and individual factors. In this study, we focus on diet behaviour at an individual level and describe the design of a behaviour change artefact to support diet behaviour change in persons with type 2 diabetes. This artefact was designed using a human-centred design methodology and the Behaviour Change Wheel framework. The designed artefact sought to support diet behaviour change through the addition of healthy foods and the reduction or removal of unhealthy foods over a 12-week period. These targeted behaviours were supported by the enabling behaviours of water consumption and mindfulness practice. The artefact created was a behaviour change planner in calendar format, that incorporated behaviour change techniques and which focused on changing diet behaviour gradually over the 12-week period. The behaviour change planner forms part of a behaviour change intervention which also includes a preparatory workbook exercise and one-to-one action planning sessions and can be customised for each participant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Wearables Section 2021)

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19 pages, 1294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bayesian-Inference Embedded Spline-Kerneled Chirplet Transform for Spectrum-Aware Motion Magnification

by Enjian Cai, Dongsheng Li, Jianyuan Lin and Hongnan Li

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2794; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072794 - 6 Apr 2022

Viewed by 2460

Abstract

The ability to discern subtle image changes over time is useful in applications such as product quality control, civil engineering structure evaluation, medical video analysis, music entertainment, and so on. However, tiny yet useful variations are often combined with large motions, which severely [...] Read more.

The ability to discern subtle image changes over time is useful in applications such as product quality control, civil engineering structure evaluation, medical video analysis, music entertainment, and so on. However, tiny yet useful variations are often combined with large motions, which severely distorts current video amplification methods bounded by external constraints. This paper presents a novel use of spectra to make motion magnification robust to large movements. By exploiting spectra, artificial limitations and the magnification of small motions are avoided at similar frequency levels while ignoring large ones at distinct spectral pixels. To achieve this, this paper constructs spline-kerneled chirplet transform (SCT) into an empirical Bayesian paradigm that applies to the entire time series, giving powerful spectral resolution and robust performance to noise in nonstationary nonlinear signal analysis. The important advance reported is Bayesian-rule embedded SCT (BE-SCT); two numerical experiments show its superiority over current approaches. For applying to spectrum-aware motion magnification, an elaborate analytical framework is established that captures global motion, and use of the proposed BE-SCT for dynamic filtering enables a frequency-based motion isolation. Our approach is demonstrated on real-world and synthetic videos. This approach shows superior qualitative and quantitative results with less visual artifacts and more local details over the state-of-the-art methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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19 pages, 2353 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Efficient Control Strategies for LCC-HVDC Systems: A Case Study of Matiari–Lahore HVDC Power Transmission Line

by Adeel Ahmed, Danish Khan, Ahmed Muddassir Khan, Muhammad Umair Mustafa, Manoj Kumar Panjwani, Muhammad Hanan, Ephraim Bonah Agyekum, Solomon Eghosa Uhunamure and Joshua Nosa Edokpayi

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2793; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072793 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5247

Abstract

With the recent development in power electronic devices, HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) systems have been recognized as the most prominent solution to transmit electric power economically. Today, several HVDC projects have been implemented physically. The conventional HVDC systems use grid commutation converters, [...] Read more.

With the recent development in power electronic devices, HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) systems have been recognized as the most prominent solution to transmit electric power economically. Today, several HVDC projects have been implemented physically. The conventional HVDC systems use grid commutation converters, and its commutation relies on an AC system for the provision of voltage. Due to this reason, there are possibilities of commutation failure during fault. Furthermore, once the DC (Direct Current) system power is interrupted momentarily, the reversal of work power is likely to cause transient over-voltage, which will endanger the safety of power grid operation. Hence, it is necessary to study the commutation failure and transient over-voltage issues. To tackle the above issues, in this paper, the dynamic and transient characteristics of Pakistan’s first HVDC project, i.e., the Matiari–Lahore ±660 kV transmission line has been analyzed in an electromagnetic transient model of PSCAD/EMTDC. Based on the characteristics of the DC and the off-angle after the failure, a new control strategy has been proposed. The HVDC system along with its proposed control strategy has been tested under various operating conditions. The proposed controller increases the speed of fault detection, reduces the drop of AC voltage and DC and suppresses the commutation failure probability of LCC-HVDC (line commutated converter- high voltage direct current). Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Future Electricity Network Infrastructures)
(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Sensors)

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17 pages, 390 KiB

Open AccessReview

Augmented Reality (AR) and Cyber-Security for Smart Cities—A Systematic Literature Review

by Nouf M. Alzahrani and Faisal Abdulaziz Alfouzan

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2792; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072792 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 9002

Abstract

Augmented Reality (AR) and cyber-security technologies have existed for several decades, but their growth and progress in recent years have increased exponentially. The areas of application for these technologies are clearly heterogeneous, most especially in purchase and sales, production, tourism, education, as well [...] Read more.

Augmented Reality (AR) and cyber-security technologies have existed for several decades, but their growth and progress in recent years have increased exponentially. The areas of application for these technologies are clearly heterogeneous, most especially in purchase and sales, production, tourism, education, as well as social interaction (games, entertainment, communication). Essentially, these technologies are recognized worldwide as some of the pillars of the new industrial revolution envisaged by the industry 4.0 international program, and are some of the leading technologies of the 21st century. The ability to provide users with required information about processes or procedures directly into the virtual environment is archetypally the fundamental factor in considering AR as an effective tool for different fields. However, the advancement in ICT has also brought about a variety of cybersecurity challenges, with a depth of evidence anticipating policy, architectural, design, and technical solutions in this very domain. The specific applications of AR and cybersecurity technologies have been described in detail in a variety of papers, which demonstrate their potential in diverse fields. In the context of smart cities, however, there is a dearth of sources describing their varied uses. Notably, a scholarly paper that consolidates research on AR and cybersecurity application in this context is markedly lacking. Therefore, this systematic review was designed to identify, describe, and synthesize research findings on the application of AR and cybersecurity for smart cities. The review study involves filtering information of their application in this setting from three key databases to answer the predefined research question. The keynote part of this paper provides an in-depth review of some of the most recent AR and cybersecurity applications for smart cities, emphasizing potential benefits, limitations, as well as open issues which could represent new challenges for the future. The main finding that we found is that there are five main categories of these applications for smart cities, which can be classified according to the main articles, such as tourism, monitoring, system management, education, and mobility. Compared with the general literature on smart cities, tourism, monitoring, and maintenance AR applications appear to attract more scholarly attention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cybersecurity Issues in Smart Grids and Future Power Systems)

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30 pages, 8426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-SNR Infrared Point Target Detection and Tracking via Saliency-Guided Double-Stage Particle Filter

by Liangjie Jia, Peng Rao, Yuke Zhang, Yueqi Su and Xin Chen

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2791; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072791 - 5 Apr 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3727

Abstract

Low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) infrared point target detection and tracking is crucial to study regarding infrared remote sensing. In the low-SNR images, the intensive noise will submerge targets. In this letter, a saliency-guided double-stage particle filter (SGDS-PF) formed by the searching particle filter [...] Read more.

Low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) infrared point target detection and tracking is crucial to study regarding infrared remote sensing. In the low-SNR images, the intensive noise will submerge targets. In this letter, a saliency-guided double-stage particle filter (SGDS-PF) formed by the searching particle filter (PF) and tracking PF is proposed to detect and track targets. Before the searching PF, to suppress noise and enhance targets, the single-frame and multi-frame target accumulation methods are introduced. Besides, the likelihood estimation filter and image block segmentation are proposed to extract the likelihood saliency and obtain proper proposal density. Guided by this proposal density, the searching PF detects potential targets efficiently. Then, with the result of the searching PF, the tracking PF is adopted to track and confirm the potential targets. Finally, the path of the real targets will be output. Compared with the existing methods, the SGDS-PF optimizes the proposal density for low-SNR images. Using a few accurate particles, the searching PF detects potential targets quickly and accurately. In addition, initialized by the searching PF, the tracking PF can keep tracking targets using very few particles even under intensive noise. Furthermore, the parameters have been selected appropriately through experiments. Extensive experimental results show that the SGDS-PF has an outstanding performance in tracking precision, tracking reliability, and time consumption. The SGDS-PF outperforms the other advanced methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Processing for Infrared Vision: Methods and Applications)

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19 pages, 2976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differences between Systems Using Optical and Capacitive Sensors in Treadmill-Based Spatiotemporal Analysis of Level and Sloping Gait

by Dimitris Mandalidis and Ioannis Kafetzakis

Sensors 2022, 22(7), 2790; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22072790 - 5 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2711

Abstract

Modern technology has enabled researchers to analyze gait with great accuracy and in various conditions based on the needs of the trainees. The purpose of the study was to investigate the agreement between systems equipped with optical and capacitive sensors in the analysis [...] Read more.

Modern technology has enabled researchers to analyze gait with great accuracy and in various conditions based on the needs of the trainees. The purpose of the study was to investigate the agreement between systems equipped with optical and capacitive sensors in the analysis of treadmill-based level and sloping gait. The spatiotemporal parameters of gait were measured in 30 healthy college-level students during barefoot walking on 0% (level), −10% and −20% (downhill) and +10% and +20% (uphill) slopes at hiking-related speeds using an optoelectric cell system and an instrumented treadmill. Inter-system agreement was assessed using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICCs) and the 95% limits of agreement. Our findings revealed excellent ICCs for the temporal and between moderate to excellent ICCs for the spatial parameters of gait. Walking downhill and on a 10% slope demonstrated better inter-system agreement compared to walking uphill and on a 20% slope. Inter-system agreement regarding the duration of gait phases was increased by increasing the number of LEDs used by the optoelectric cell system to detect the contact event. The present study suggests that systems equipped with optical and capacitive sensors can be used interchangeably in the treadmill-based spatiotemporal analysis of level and sloping gait. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Predictive Strategies in Data Fusion)

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