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Article

Adenine Combined with Cisplatin Promotes Anticancer Activity against Hepatocellular Cancer Cells through AMPK-Mediated p53/p21 and p38 MAPK Cascades

by
Jhen-Yu Huang
1,
You-Cian Lin
2,3,
Han-Min Chen
4,
Jiun-Tsai Lin
5 and
Shao-Hsuan Kao
1,6,*
1
Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung City 402306, Taiwan
2
Cardiovascular Division, Surgical Department, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung City 404332, Taiwan
3
School of Medicine, College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung City 404332, Taiwan
4
Institute of Applied Science and Engineering, Catholic Fu Jen University, New Taipei 242048, Taiwan
5
Energenesis Biomedical Co., Ltd., Taipei 114694, Taiwan
6
Department of Medical Research, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung City 402306, Taiwan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pharmaceuticals 2022, 15(7), 795; https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15070795
Submission received: 29 May 2022 / Revised: 23 June 2022 / Accepted: 24 June 2022 / Published: 26 June 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synergistic Effects of Plant Derivatives with Other Drugs)
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Abstract

:
Cisplatin has been widely used in cancer treatments. Recent evidence indicates that adenine has potential anticancer activities against various types of cancers. However, the effects of the combination of adenine and cisplatin on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells remain sketchy. Here, our objective was to elucidate the anticancer activity of adenine in combination with cisplatin in HCC cells and its mechanistic pathways. Cell viability and cell cycle progression were assessed by the SRB assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Apoptosis was demonstrated by PI/annexin V staining and flow cytometric analysis. Protein expression, signaling cascade, and mRNA expression were analyzed by Western blotting and quantitative RT-PCR, respectively. Our results showed that adenine jointly potentiated the inhibitory effects of cisplatin on the cell viability of SK-Hep1 and Huh7 cells. Further investigation showed that adenine combined with cisplatin induced higher S phase arrest and apoptosis in HCC cells. Mechanically, adenine induced AMPK activation, reduced mTOR phosphorylation, and increased p53 and p21 levels. The combination of adenine and cisplatin synergistically reduced Bcl-2 and increased PUMA, cleaved caspase-3, and PARP in HCC cells. Adenine also upregulated the mRNA expression of p53, p21, PUMA, and PARP, while knockdown of AMPK reduced the increased expression of these genes. Furthermore, adenine also induced the activation of p38 MAPK through AMPK signaling, and the inhibition of p38 MAPK reduced the apoptosis of HCC cells with exposure to adenine combined with cisplatin. Collectively, these findings reveal that the combination of adenine and cisplatin synergistically enhances apoptosis of HCC cells, which may be attributed to the AMPK-mediated p53/p21 and p38 MAPK cascades. It suggests that adenine may be a potential adjuvant for the treatment of HCC in combination with cisplatin.

1. Introduction

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary cancer in the world, accounting for between 85 and 90 percent of the cases of liver cancer and killing more than 600,000 people annually. [1,2]. Today, surgical resection is still the most effective treatment for liver cancer [3]; however, HCC patients generally carry the dual burden of cancer itself and other comorbidities, including cirrhosis, thrombocytopenia, and neutropenia, and the complicated combination of HCC and comorbidity often diminishes the efficacy of treatments for patients [4]. Additionally, the prognosis for HCC remains poor, which is attributed in large part to high recurrence after surgical resection and chemoresistance to current anticancer drugs through dysregulation of cell proliferation and survival signaling [5,6].
Chemotherapy has been widely used in cancer patients who have undergone resection or cannot be treated with surgery. Unfortunately, few drugs can produce effective therapeutic effects in patients with HCC [7]. Furthermore, a high incidence of chemotherapy resistance is frequently observed in HCC, especially after long-term use of chemotherapy [8]. Cisplatin (cis-diammine-dichloroplatinum) is an essential component of standard chemotherapy for gastrointestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary cancers [9]. Although multidrug regimens have higher response rates for HCC than monotherapy with cisplatin, the efficacy remains unsatisfactory.
Adenine is a nucleobase that plays an important role in nucleic acid synthesis and is widely involved in energy metabolism. Furthermore, our recent studies have indicated that adenine has multiple activities, including anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities, by triggering AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) [10,11]. AMPK is a key sensor for monitoring cellular energy status, which is activated to enhance energy generation and inhibit protein synthesis in response to nutrient deprivation and hypoxia [12]. Moreover, AMPK also participates in controlling cell proliferation, cell growth, and activation of autophagy [13,14], and AMPK can inhibit the proliferation of various cancer cells, such as K562, HepG2, and hypoxic SW620 cells [11,15,16]. Moreover, AMPK activation by radiation or oxidative stress has been reported to trigger apoptosis via p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) [17]. However, the role of AMPK and p38 MAPK in the anticancer activity of adenine combined with cisplatin on HCC cells remains unclear. In this study, we elucidated the anticancer activity of cisplatin, adenine, and their combinations on HCC cells and the underlying mechanistic cascades. Our findings showed that adenine combined with cisplatin synergistically promoted cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in HCC cells through AMPK-mediated p53/p21 and p38 MAPK cascades.

2. Results

2.1. Inhibitory Effects of Adenine, Cisplatin, and Their Combination on Cell Viability of HCC Cells

The effects of adenine and cisplatin on the viability of HCC cells were assessed by using the SRB assay. As shown in Figure 1A, adenine dose−dependently reduced cell viability of SK−Hep1 and Huh7 cells up to 60.4 ± 5.8% and 72.1 ± 4.1% of control, respectively (at 4 mM, p < 0.01). Similarly, cisplatin also reduced cell viability of both HCC cells up to 16.7 ± 4.9% and 18.4 ± 2.8% of control, respectively (at 160 µM, p < 0.005, Figure 1B). According to the results, 40 µM cisplatin that showed a moderate cytotoxicity to HCC cells was chosen for the following combined treatments with adenine. As shown in Figure 1C, 40 µM cisplatin significantly reduced cell viability of SK−Hep1 and Huh7 cells to 63.2 ± 2.7% and 60.5 ± 4.3%, respectively (p < 0.05 as compared to control), and the combination of 40 µM cisplatin with serial concentrations of adenine further reduced the cell viability of the HCC cells down to 31.6 ± 4.3% and 35.1 ± 5.5%, respectively (cisplatin + 2 mM adenine, p < 0.05 as compared to cisplatin alone). Together, the observations indicate that adenine shows cytotoxicity in HCC cells and synergistically promotes the cytotoxicity of cisplatin to HCC cells.

2.2. Adenine Promotes the Cisplatin-Induced S Phase Arrest and Apoptosis of HCC Cells

Cisplatin is known to induce DNA damage and subsequently result in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis [18]. Next, we explored the effects of adenine on cisplatin-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of HCC cells. As shown in Figure 2A, the results of the cell cycle distribution analysis showed that cisplatin (40 µM) increased the sub−G1 and S phase ratios in SK−Hep1 and Huh7 cells compared to control (p < 0.05), and the combination of cisplatin (40 µM) and adenine (2 mM) further increased the subG1 and S phase ratios compared to cisplatin alone (p < 0.05). In addition, the apoptosis assay using Annexin V−PI staining and flow cytometric analysis showed that cisplatin alone led to 21.3 ± 4.6% and 20.7 ± 3.8% apoptotic cells in SK−Hep1 and Huh7 cells, respectively (p < 0.05 as compared to control). Furthermore, the combination of cisplatin and adenine resulted in 30.1 ± 3.5% and 28.9 ± 2.8% apoptotic cells in HCC cells, respectively (p < 0.05 as compared to cisplatin alone). Together, these observations reveal that adenine synergistically promotes the cisplatin−induced S phase arrest and apoptosis of HCC cells.

2.3. The Combination of Adenine and Cisplatin Jointly Triggers the AMPK/p53/p21 Cascade in HCC Cells

Adenine has been reported as an AMPK activator and has shown potential anticancer activity against a variety of cancer cells [11,19]. Therefore, the effects of adenine on AMPK signaling in HCC cells were then examined. As shown in Figure 3, adenine alone significantly induced threonine 172 in the alpha subunit of AMPK, which triggered AMPK activation and reduced mTOR phosphorylation, a downstream target of AMPK [20] in SK-Hep1 and Huh7 cells. Parallel to AMPK activation, adenine alone also increased the expression of p53 and p21 in HCC cells. Moreover, the combination of adenine and cisplatin treatment increased more AMPK phosphorylation and p53 and p21 expression in HCC cells compared to treatment with adenine or cisplatin alone (p < 0.05). Consistently, the combination of adenine and cisplatin treatment resulted in reduced mTOR phosphorylation in both HCC cells compared to treatment with adenine or cisplatin alone (p < 0.05). Taken together, these results show that the combination of adenine and cisplatin jointly promotes the activation of AMPK and the expression of p53 and p21 in HCC cells.

2.4. The Combination of Adenine and Cisplatin Jointly Triggers the Apoptotic Cascade in HCC Cells

The effects of cisplatin, adenine, and the combination on the apoptotic cascade were investigated. As shown in Figure 4, cisplatin or adenine alone significantly reduced the expression level of Bcl-2 and increased the expression level of PUMA, cleaved caspase-3, and PARP in SK-Hep1 and Huh7 cells compared to the control (p < 0.05), respectively. Moreover, the combination of adenine and cisplatin treatment contributed to the lower expression level of Bcl-2 and higher levels of PUMA, cleaved caspase-3, and PARP in HCC cells compared to treatment with adenine or cisplatin alone (p < 0.05). Taken together, the results show that the combination of adenine and cisplatin jointly reduces the Bcl-2 level and promotes the apoptotic cascade in HCC cells.

2.5. Adenine in Combination with Cisplatin Jointly Induces Pro-Apoptotic and Suppresses Anti-Apoptotic Gene Expression in HCC Cells through AMPK

In parallel to the protein level, the mRNA expression of the cell cycle regulator and pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes was further validated after treatments with adenine, cisplatin, or their combination. As shown in Figure 5A, the qPCR analysis showed that adenine and cisplatin significantly upregulated the mRNA expression of p53, p21, PUMA, and PARP (p < 0.01), and the combination of cisplatin and adenine upregulated the mRNA expression of p53, p21, PUMA, and PARP more than cisplatin and adenine alone (p < 0.05) in both HCC cells. The role of AMPK in the combination of cisplatin and adenine was then explored. AMPK knockdown was carried out using specific siRNAs, and the results showed that AMPK protein levels clearly decreased in SK-Hep1 and Huh7 cells (Figure 5B). The effects of a combination of cisplatin and adenine on AMPK knockdown-HCC cells were then assessed. As shown in Figure 5C, AMPK knockdown significantly reduced the mRNA expression of p53, p21, PUMA, and PARP induced by the combined treatment with cisplatin and adenine (p < 0.05). Collectively, these observations show that the combination of cisplatin and adenine significantly induces p53-mediated pro-apoptotic gene expression, and AMPK is involved in the induction of this p53-mediated pro-apoptotic gene expression.

2.6. Combination of Adenine and Cisplatin Synergistically Reduced Cell Viability Attributing to AMPK-Mediated p38 MAPK Activation in HCC Cells

p38 MAPK is involved in AMPK-mediated apoptosis in response to oxidative stress. Therefore, we further elucidated whether p38 MAPK was involved in the reduced cell viability in response to adenine combined with cisplatin. As shown in Figure 6A, adenine combined with cisplatin induced p38 MAPK activation and the knockdown of AMPK, or the pretreatment of the p38 MAPK inhibitor significantly attenuated the p38 MAPK activation triggered by the combination of adenine and cisplatin. Consistently, the number of apoptotic cells was increased by the combination of adenine and cisplatin treatment, and the increased apoptotic cell number in response to the combination of adenine and cisplatin was partially reduced by AMPK knockdown (Figure 6B) or p38 MAPK inhibitor pretreatment (Figure 6C). Taken together, these results indicate that AMPK-mediated p38 MAPK activation is involved in the combination of adenine and cisplatin-induced apoptosis of HCC cells.

3. Discussion

Platinum-based anticancer drugs have been widely used in chemotherapy for different types of malignancies, such as lung cancer, cervical cancer, gastric cancer, and liver cancer. In usual clinical practice, 25–75 mg/m2 of cisplatin has been applied for cancer treatment [21]. However, the high incidence of resistance to platinum-based drugs markedly diminishes their therapeutic efficacy. In this study, our findings show that adenine significantly promotes the cytotoxicity of cisplatin in HCC cells and cisplatin-induced apoptosis, attributing to AMPK-regulated p53/p21/PUMA and p38 cascades (summarized in Figure 7). It suggests that the combination of adenine and cisplatin may have an enhanced therapeutic effect in HCC treatment. However, whether the combination of adenine and cisplatin enhances toxicity to normal cells and increases the risk of adverse effects still needs further investigation.
Long-lasting injury of the liver, such as liver steatosis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis, is highly associated with the development and progression of HCC [22,23]. As a result, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation pathways play important roles in both hepatic tumorigenesis and anticancer activity against HCC in response to natural bioactives. Phaleria macrocarpa extract has been reported to exert antifibrotic activity via reducing oxidative stress and pro-fibrogenic TGF-β1 and MMP-13 expression [24]. Safranal, a small molecule from saffron, has shown anticancer activity against HepG2 cells via oxidative stress-triggered protein destabilization and DNA damage apoptosis [25]. Moreover, mounting evidence has revealed that noncoding RNAs, such as LINC00963, show potent oncogenic effects via modulating the PI3K/AKT, Wnt, AMPK, and MAPK signaling pathways, thereby governing cell proliferation, migration, invasion, EMT, and apoptosis [26]. Adenine-induced AMPK activation has been implicated in the regulation of cell cycle progression and invasiveness of cancer cells [19,27]; however, the roles of oxidative stress and noncoding RNAs in adenine-mediated anticancer action need further investigation.
AMPK is a key cellular energy regulator that monitors the cellular energy level and mediates energy production. Generally, a low ATP/ADP ratio induces AMPK activation and subsequently triggers cellular energy production [28]. Recent studies have shown that AMPK also plays a central role in the regulation of cell proliferation, cell growth, and autophagy, thereby exerting its anticancer activity [14,29,30]. Furthermore, adenine not only induces AMPK phosphorylation at T172 and reduces mTOR phosphorylation at S2448, but also synergizes with cisplatin to enhance the T172 phosphorylation of AMPK and to reduce the S2448 phosphorylation of mTOR in HCC cells. These observations suggest that AMPK/mTOR signaling may enhance the anticancer effect of cisplatin for HCC treatment.
p53 is a tumor suppressor that can be activated or upregulated by various cellular stresses, triggering cell cycle arrest, apoptotic cascades, and ultimately, apoptosis [31]. Extracellular stimuli induce p53-mediated cascades and subsequent cell cycle arrest at G1/S phase by the upregulation of downstream p21 [27,32]. A recent study reports that p53 haploinsufficiency and increased mTOR signaling, which are frequently observed in HCC, play an important role in a subset of aggressive HCC and indicate that the inhibition of mTOR may diminish tumor-promoting activity associated with p53 haploinsufficiency and provide a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of aggressive HCC [33]. Similarly, our results show that adenine induces the upregulation of p53/p21 and synergizes cisplatin-induced p53/p21 expression, which may result in the S phase arrest in HCC cells. Of importance, adenine induces AMPK activation and thus inhibits downstream mTOR, suggesting that cisplatin combined with adenine may diminish the p53 haploinsufficiency-associated malignancy.
Previous studies have reported that quercetin can induce apoptosis of the breast cancer cell MCF-7 and the colorectal cancer cell HCT116 by modulating the AMPK/p38 pathway [34,35], implying that AMPK/p38 plays a critical role in triggering p53-independent apoptosis of cancer cells. In addition, these studies also demonstrate the involvement of reactive oxygen species and Bax in AMPK/p38-induced apoptosis. Similarly, our results show that adenine combined with cisplatin induces AMPK-mediated activation of p38 MAPK and Bax upregulation in HCC cells. Furthermore, the involvement of p38 MAPK in the apoptosis induced by the combination of adenine and cisplatin is also demonstrated.
Anticancer drugs often exert their anticancer activity by inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis, and therefore, p53 is one of the main targets of anticancer drugs [36,37]. Furthermore, AMPK activation has been reported to contribute to p53 activation in cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity [38]. p21 is a downstream effector of the p53 cascade, which can result in G1/S phase arrest, and plays a central role in the potential of p53-mediated tumor suppression in response to DNA damage [39]. In addition to DNA damage, apoptosis can be provoked by a variety of stresses, such as nutrient deprivation, and is initiated by transcriptional and/or post-transcriptional upregulation of pro-apoptotic BH3 proteins, including PUMA [40,41]. PARP is a pro-apoptotic protein, and its upregulation is associated with apoptosis [42]. PARP is also a preferred substrate for apoptotic proteases, such as caspases, cathepsins, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and PARP cleavage is recognized as an apoptotic marker [43]. Our results reveal that the combination of adenine and cisplatin not only synergistically upregulates the gene expression of p53, p21, PUMA, and PARP through the activation of AMPK, but also induces p38 activation and Bax upregulation. These findings indicate that the combined treatment of adenine and cisplatin may possess multiple anticancer activities through different pathways.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Reagents and Antibodies

Adenine, bovine serum albumin (BSA), EDTA, HEPES, Igepal CA-630, PMSF, sulforhodamine B (SRB), Tris, Triton X-100, Tween-20, and protease/phosphatase inhibitor cocktail were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) and fetal bovine serum (FBS) were purchased from Gibco (Grand Island, NY, USA). Anti-human Bcl-2 (sc-7382), p21 (sc-53870), p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis (PUMA, sc-374223), cleaved PARP (sc-56196), β-actin (sc-8432) antibodies, and peroxidase-conjugated antibodies against mouse or rabbit IgG (sc-516102, sc-2357) were acquired from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz CA, USA). Anti-human phosphor(p)-AMPK(T172) (#50081), AMPK (#5832), cleaved caspase-3 (#9664), p-mTOR(S2448) (#2971), p-p38 MAPK (p-p38, #9211), p38 MAPK (p38, #9212), Bax (#2774), mTOR (#2972), and p53 (#9282) antibodies were acquired from Cell Signaling Technologies (Beverly, MA, USA).

4.2. Cell Culture and Treatments

SK-Hep-1 and Huh7 cell lines were obtained from the Bioresource Collection and Research Center (Hsinchu, Taiwan) and maintained in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% FBS according to the recommendation. Cells were grown to 80% confluence and sub-cultured into 6-well plates at an initial density of 1 × 105 cells/mL for the subsequent treatments. Cells were incubated with adenine (0.125, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 mM), cisplatin (5, 10, 20, 40, 80, and 160 µM), or the combination (40 µM cisplatin with 1 or 2 mM adenine) in DMEM for 24 h. After the incubation, the treated cells were washed with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; 25 mM sodium phosphate, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.2) and collected for the subsequent analyses.

4.3. In Vitro Cytotoxicity Assessment

Cytotoxicity was assessed using SRB assay with modification [44]. In brief, 5 × 104 cells were seeded in a 24-well plate and cultured with complete medium containing 10% FBS for 24 h. After treatments, cells were fixed with 10% trichloroacetic acid, incubated with SRB for 30 min, and washed with 1% acetic acid. The protein–dye complex was dissolved in a 10 mM Tris base solution, and the absorbance at 510 nm was then determined by a microplate reader (SpectraMAX 360 pc, Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA, USA). Data were expressed as the percentage of control (PBS treatment).

4.4. Cell Cycle Distribution and Apoptosis Assay

Cell cycle distribution was evaluated by propidium iodide (PI) staining and flow cytometric analysis. After exposure to adenine, cisplatin, or the combination of adenine and cisplatin for 24 h, cells were collected and fixed with cold 70% ethanol. After centrifugation at 600× g for 5 min, the cells were incubated with 100 mg/mL RNase/PBS for 30 min at 37 °C, reacted with 50 mg/mL PI/PBS, and then analyzed using a FACS Calibur system (version 2.0, BD Biosciences, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA) equipped with CellQuest software (version 7.5, Becton Dickinson, NJ, USA). For assessment of apoptosis, the Annexin V–FITC Apoptosis Detection Kit (BioVision, Waltham, MA, USA) was used. In brief, cells (5 × 105) were treated with adenine, cisplatin, or the combination of adenine and cisplatin for 24 h, resuspended in 500 µL binding buffer, and then reacted with 5 mL annexin V– fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and 5 mL PI solution in the dark for 30 min. Cell apoptosis was evaluated by the FACS Calibur system analysis (version 2.0, BD Biosciences, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA), in which signals only stained with Annexin V–FITC indicated early apoptosis, and both Annexin V–FITC- and PI-stained signals indicated late apoptosis.

4.5. Protein Extraction and Western Blotting

Cells were lysed using RIPA buffer supplemented with protease and phosphatase inhibitor cocktail (Sigma-Aldrich) at 4 °C for 30 min. After centrifugation (20,000× g, 4 °C, 15 min) to remove insoluble debris, the supernatant (crude protein extracts) was collected for the following analysis. Protein concentration was assessed by Bradford method in accordance with the manufacturer’s instruction (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA). Crude proteins were separated by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, transferred onto a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (Immobilon, Merck-Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA), and then blocked with 3% (w/v) BSA/PBS at 25 °C for 1 h. Thereafter, the membrane was incubated with primary antibodies (1000-fold dilution) for 2 h and then incubated with secondary antibodies (2000-fold dilution) for 2 h after being washed with 0.5% Tween-20/PBS. The antibody–antigen complex was detected using an ECL chemiluminescence reagent (SuperSignal West Dura HRP Detection Kit; Pierce Biotechnology, Rockford, IL, USA), and the resulting signals were acquired and semi-quantitated using an image analysis system (Fujifilm, Tokyo, Japan). Signals from PBS treatment were used as control.

4.6. Knockdown of AMPKα Expression

The AMPKα gene silencing was carried out by specific small inhibitory RNAs (siRNAs) obtained from Sigma-Aldrich as previously described [45]. In brief, cells were incubated with Lipofectamine (RNAiMax reagent, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) containing 0.1 µM AMPKα1 siRNA (5′-AGU GAA GGU UGG CAA ACA U-3′) and AMPKα2 siRNA (5′-GGA AGG UAG UGA AUG CAU A-3′) at 37 °C and 5% CO2 for 72 h, and the AMPK expression was then assessed by Western blotting to evaluate the efficiency of gene silencing.

4.7. RNA Extraction and Quantitative Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR)

Total RNA was extracted using Trizol, then purified by using the RNeasy kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA, USA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The first-strand cDNA synthesis was performed by using the RevertAidTM First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (Fermentas. Life Sciences, St. Leon-Rot, Germany) and the purified RNA as templates. The primer sequences used for qPCR analysis: p53 forward 5′-TGCGTGTGGAGTATTTGGATG-3′, reverse 5′-TGGTACAGTCAGAGCCAACCTC-3′; p21 forward 5′- TGA GCC GCG ACT GTG ATG-3′, reverse 5′- GTC TCG GTG ACA AAG TCG AAG TT-3′; PUMA forward 5′-CTGCTGCCCGCTGCC TACCT-3′, reverse 5′-CCGCT CGTACTGTGCG TTGAG-3′; PARP forward 5′- GCT TCA GCC TCC TTG CTA CA -3′, reverse 5′- TTC GCC ACT TCA TCC ACT CC-3′; and GAPDH forward 5′-AGC CTC AAG ATC ATC AGC AAT G-3′, reverse 5′-ATG GAC TGT GGT CAT GAG TCC TT-3′. qPCR analysis was performed by using the ABI PRISM 7700 sequence detection system (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). FastStart Universal SYBR Green Master (Roche Applied Science, Mannheim, Germany) and Taqman PCR were used for mRNA quantitation. The ΔΔCT relative value method with normalizing to GAPDH was used to evaluate the threshold cycle numbers. Triplicates of qPCR experiments were carried out for statistical analysis.

4.8. Statistical Analysis

Quantitative results from three independent experiments were expressed as means ± standards deviations (SD) and processed with GraphPad Prism 6 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, USA). One-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett for multiple comparisons with the control and Student’s t-test were used to compare the differences between multiple groups or two groups, respectively. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

5. Conclusions

The present study reveals that adenine combined with cisplatin synergistically potentiates antiproliferative activity through inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through AMPK-mediated p53/p21/PUMA and p38 cascades. It provides evidence that adenine is a potential adjuvant for platinum-based chemotherapy for HCC. In addition, the concomitant inhibition of mTOR and upregulation of Bax by adenine may also provide a p53-independent anticancer potential for p53 haploinsufficiency HCC.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.-Y.H., Y.-C.L. and S.-H.K.; methodology, J.-Y.H., Y.-C.L. and S.-H.K.; validation, J.-Y.H., Y.-C.L. and S.-H.K.; formal analysis, J.-Y.H. and Y.-C.L.; investigation, H.-M.C. and J.-T.L.; resources, H.-M.C. and J.-T.L.; data curation, Y.-C.L. and S.-H.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.-H.K.; writing—review and editing, S.-H.K.; supervision, S.-H.K.; funding acquisition, S.-H.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, grant no. MOST 108-2320-B-040-026-MY3.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Inhibitory effects of adenine, cisplatin, and their combination on cell viability of HCC cells. (A,B) Cells were treated with adenine or cisplatin alone at the indicated concentrations for 24 h, or (C) treated with 40 µM cisplatin alone or 40 µM cisplatin combined with adenine at the indicated concentrations for 24 h, and then subjected to cell viability assessment using SRB assay. Cell viability is presented as mean ± SD. Statistics analysis was carried out by three independent experiments. *, **, and ***, p < 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 as compared to control; a, p < 0.05 as compare to control; b and c, p < 0.05 and 0.01 as compared to cisplatin alone.
Figure 1. Inhibitory effects of adenine, cisplatin, and their combination on cell viability of HCC cells. (A,B) Cells were treated with adenine or cisplatin alone at the indicated concentrations for 24 h, or (C) treated with 40 µM cisplatin alone or 40 µM cisplatin combined with adenine at the indicated concentrations for 24 h, and then subjected to cell viability assessment using SRB assay. Cell viability is presented as mean ± SD. Statistics analysis was carried out by three independent experiments. *, **, and ***, p < 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 as compared to control; a, p < 0.05 as compare to control; b and c, p < 0.05 and 0.01 as compared to cisplatin alone.
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Figure 2. Adenine promoted cisplatin-induced apoptosis of HCC cells. Cells were treated with cisplatin (CDDP), adenine, or their combination for 24 h and then subjected to (A) cell cycle distribution assay or (B) apoptosis assay using Annexin V-PI staining. Cell cycle phase ratios are presented as mean ± SD. a, p < 0.05 as compared to the control; b, p < 0.05 as compared to cisplatin alone.
Figure 2. Adenine promoted cisplatin-induced apoptosis of HCC cells. Cells were treated with cisplatin (CDDP), adenine, or their combination for 24 h and then subjected to (A) cell cycle distribution assay or (B) apoptosis assay using Annexin V-PI staining. Cell cycle phase ratios are presented as mean ± SD. a, p < 0.05 as compared to the control; b, p < 0.05 as compared to cisplatin alone.
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Figure 3. Adenine triggered AMPK activation and enhanced cisplatin-induced p53/p21 expression in HCC cells. Cells were treated with cisplatin (CDDP), adenine, or their combination for 24 h and then subjected to immunodetection of the AMPK and p53 cascade by Western blotting. The signals in Western blots were semi-quantitated by densitometric analysis using β-actin as an internal control. Quantitative data are presented as mean ± SD. a, p < 0.05 as compared to the control; b, p < 0.05 as compared to cisplatin alone.
Figure 3. Adenine triggered AMPK activation and enhanced cisplatin-induced p53/p21 expression in HCC cells. Cells were treated with cisplatin (CDDP), adenine, or their combination for 24 h and then subjected to immunodetection of the AMPK and p53 cascade by Western blotting. The signals in Western blots were semi-quantitated by densitometric analysis using β-actin as an internal control. Quantitative data are presented as mean ± SD. a, p < 0.05 as compared to the control; b, p < 0.05 as compared to cisplatin alone.
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Figure 4. Adenine reduced Bcl-2 expression and promoted the cisplatin-induced apoptotic cascade in HCC cells. Cells were treated with cisplatin (CDDP), adenine, or their combination for 24 h and then subjected to immunodetection of the Bcl-2 and apoptotic cascade by using Western blotting. The signals in Western blots were semi-quantitated by densitometric analysis using β-actin as an internal control. Quantitative data are presented as mean ± SD. a, p < 0.05 as compared to the control; b, p < 0.05 as compared to cisplatin alone.
Figure 4. Adenine reduced Bcl-2 expression and promoted the cisplatin-induced apoptotic cascade in HCC cells. Cells were treated with cisplatin (CDDP), adenine, or their combination for 24 h and then subjected to immunodetection of the Bcl-2 and apoptotic cascade by using Western blotting. The signals in Western blots were semi-quantitated by densitometric analysis using β-actin as an internal control. Quantitative data are presented as mean ± SD. a, p < 0.05 as compared to the control; b, p < 0.05 as compared to cisplatin alone.
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Figure 5. Adenine synergized p53-mediated pro-apoptotic gene expression in HCC cells in response to cisplatin by AMPK. (A) Cells were treated with cisplatin (CDDP), adenine, or their combination for 6 h and then subjected to qPCR analysis for assessing gene expression. (B,C) Cells were transfected with siControl or siAMPK for 72 h, treated with CDDP, adenine, or their combination for 6 h, and then subjected to (B) immunodetection of AMPK or (C) qPCR analysis for assessing gene expression. **, p < 0.01 as compared to control; #, p < 0.05 as compared to CDDP alone; &, p < 0.05 as compared to CDDP + ADE.
Figure 5. Adenine synergized p53-mediated pro-apoptotic gene expression in HCC cells in response to cisplatin by AMPK. (A) Cells were treated with cisplatin (CDDP), adenine, or their combination for 6 h and then subjected to qPCR analysis for assessing gene expression. (B,C) Cells were transfected with siControl or siAMPK for 72 h, treated with CDDP, adenine, or their combination for 6 h, and then subjected to (B) immunodetection of AMPK or (C) qPCR analysis for assessing gene expression. **, p < 0.01 as compared to control; #, p < 0.05 as compared to CDDP alone; &, p < 0.05 as compared to CDDP + ADE.
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Figure 6. Involvement of AMPK-mediated p38 MAPK activation in combination of adenine and cisplatin-induced apoptosis of HCC cells. (A) Cells were transfected with siControl or siAMPK for 72 h, treated with combination of adenine and cisplatin, then subjected to immunodetection of p38 MAPK and Bax. (B,C) Cells were transfected with siAMPK for 72 h or pretreated with BIRB-796 for 2 h, treated with combination of adenine and cisplatin, and then subjected to apoptosis assay using Annexin V-PI staining. * and **, p < 0.05 and 0.01 as compared to control; #, and ##, p < 0.05 and 0.01 as compared to CDDP alone; & and &&, p < 0.05 and 0.01 as compared to CDDP + ADE; a, p < 0.05 as compared to the control; b, p < 0.05 as compared to adenine combined with cisplatin.
Figure 6. Involvement of AMPK-mediated p38 MAPK activation in combination of adenine and cisplatin-induced apoptosis of HCC cells. (A) Cells were transfected with siControl or siAMPK for 72 h, treated with combination of adenine and cisplatin, then subjected to immunodetection of p38 MAPK and Bax. (B,C) Cells were transfected with siAMPK for 72 h or pretreated with BIRB-796 for 2 h, treated with combination of adenine and cisplatin, and then subjected to apoptosis assay using Annexin V-PI staining. * and **, p < 0.05 and 0.01 as compared to control; #, and ##, p < 0.05 and 0.01 as compared to CDDP alone; & and &&, p < 0.05 and 0.01 as compared to CDDP + ADE; a, p < 0.05 as compared to the control; b, p < 0.05 as compared to adenine combined with cisplatin.
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Figure 7. Proposed adjuvant activity of adenine on cisplatin-induced apoptosis of HCC cells. Our findings demonstrate that adenine induces activation of AMPK and p38 and increases pro-apoptotic Bax, while downregulating anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and mTOR. Adenine also synergistically promotes p53/p21/PUMA axis-mediated apoptosis in response to cisplatin.
Figure 7. Proposed adjuvant activity of adenine on cisplatin-induced apoptosis of HCC cells. Our findings demonstrate that adenine induces activation of AMPK and p38 and increases pro-apoptotic Bax, while downregulating anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and mTOR. Adenine also synergistically promotes p53/p21/PUMA axis-mediated apoptosis in response to cisplatin.
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Huang, J.-Y.; Lin, Y.-C.; Chen, H.-M.; Lin, J.-T.; Kao, S.-H. Adenine Combined with Cisplatin Promotes Anticancer Activity against Hepatocellular Cancer Cells through AMPK-Mediated p53/p21 and p38 MAPK Cascades. Pharmaceuticals 2022, 15, 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15070795

AMA Style

Huang J-Y, Lin Y-C, Chen H-M, Lin J-T, Kao S-H. Adenine Combined with Cisplatin Promotes Anticancer Activity against Hepatocellular Cancer Cells through AMPK-Mediated p53/p21 and p38 MAPK Cascades. Pharmaceuticals. 2022; 15(7):795. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15070795

Chicago/Turabian Style

Huang, Jhen-Yu, You-Cian Lin, Han-Min Chen, Jiun-Tsai Lin, and Shao-Hsuan Kao. 2022. "Adenine Combined with Cisplatin Promotes Anticancer Activity against Hepatocellular Cancer Cells through AMPK-Mediated p53/p21 and p38 MAPK Cascades" Pharmaceuticals 15, no. 7: 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15070795

APA Style

Huang, J. -Y., Lin, Y. -C., Chen, H. -M., Lin, J. -T., & Kao, S. -H. (2022). Adenine Combined with Cisplatin Promotes Anticancer Activity against Hepatocellular Cancer Cells through AMPK-Mediated p53/p21 and p38 MAPK Cascades. Pharmaceuticals, 15(7), 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15070795

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