Perceived Discrimination, Psychological Distress and Cardiovascular Risk in Migrants in Spain
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Perceived Discrimination and Cardiovascular Risk
1.2. Health, Psychological Distress and Cardiovascular Risk
1.3. Sociodemographic Variables and Cardiovascular Risk
1.4. Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Measures
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Future Lines of Research
4.2. Limitations of the Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Latent Variable | Indicators | Loadings | t Value | p Value | 95% Confidence Interval | Indicator Reliability | Items | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||||
Psychological Distress | PS1 | 0.373 | 11.631 | 0.000 | 0.309 | 0.434 | 0.139 | Have you been able to concentrate well? |
PS2 | 0.690 | 35.421 | 0.000 | 0.649 | 0.726 | 0.476 | Have your concerns made you lose much sleep? | |
PS3 | 0.619 | 26.545 | 0.000 | 0.569 | 0.662 | 0.383 | Have you felt you are leading a useless life? | |
PS4 | 0.628 | 27.596 | 0.000 | 0.581 | 0.670 | 0.394 | Have you felt unable to make decisions? | |
PS5 | 0.578 | 26.044 | 0.000 | 0.532 | 0.619 | 0.334 | Have you felt constantly stressed and under tension? | |
PS6 | 0.586 | 24.595 | 0.000 | 0.536 | 0.630 | 0.343 | Have you had the feeling of not being able to overcome difficulties? | |
PS7 | 0.463 | 16.082 | 0.000 | 0.406 | 0.517 | 0.214 | Have you been able to enjoy everyday activities? | |
PS8 | 0.647 | 33.321 | 0.000 | 0.606 | 0.682 | 0.418 | Have you been able to face your problems appropriately? | |
PS9 | 0.689 | 40.245 | 0.000 | 0.653 | 0.721 | 0.475 | Have you felt unhappy or depressed? | |
PS10 | 0.584 | 25.032 | 0.000 | 0.536 | 0.628 | 0.341 | Have you lost confidence in yourself? | |
PS11 | 0.571 | 23.887 | 0.000 | 0.521 | 0.615 | 0.326 | Have you felt like a useless person? | |
PS12 | 0.743 | 49.599 | 0.000 | 0.711 | 0.770 | 0.552 | Do you feel reasonably happy considering all circumstances? | |
AVE = 0.370 | 34.953 | 0.000 | 0.349 | 0.391 | ||||
Composite Reliability = 0.873 | 164.924 | 0.000 | 0.862 | 0.883 | ||||
Rho A = 0.858 | 128.750 | 0.000 | 0.845 | 0.871 | ||||
Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.844 | 121.381 | 0.000 | 0.830 | 0.857 |
Formative Constructs | Formative Indicators | Outer Weights | Outer Loadings | t Value | p Value | 95% Confidence Interval | Items | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||||
Perceived Discrimination | PD1 | 0.340 | 0.771 | 3.625 | 0.000 | 0.149 | 0.510 | Work environment (access to work, salary, promotion, training, dismissal, balancing work and family life) |
PD2 | 0.410 | 0.812 | 4.273 | 0.000 | 0.212 | 0.585 | Access to public services (education, health care, subsidies, means of transport) | |
PD3 | 0.085 | 0.649 | 0.915 | 0.360 | −0.099 | 0.271 | Attention and treatment from the Public Administration (citizen’s assistance offices, information, civil servants) | |
PD4 | 0.049 | 0.536 | 0.548 | 0.584 | −0.131 | 0.223 | Treatment by the police | |
PD5 | 0.138 | 0.676 | 1.452 | 0.147 | −0.052 | 0.320 | Access to housing | |
PD6 | 0.250 | 0.672 | 2.676 | 0.007 | 0.060 | 0.425 | At shops, bars and other private services | |
PD7 | −0.062 | 0.243 | 0.524 | 0.600 | −0.294 | 0.174 | In your family (from your partner) | |
PD8 | 0.040 | 0.292 | 0.360 | 0.719 | −0.177 | 0.248 | In your family (from someone who is not your partner) | |
PD9 | 0.048 | 0.645 | 0.501 | 0.617 | −0.141 | 0.237 | In the street, treatment from people | |
Cardiovascular Risk | Hypertension | 0.686 | 0.822 | 11.600 | 0.000 | 0.564 | 0.794 | Arterial hypertension |
Cholesterol | 0.586 | 0.745 | 8.956 | 0.000 | 0.452 | 0.707 | Hypercholesterolemia |
Effects | Path Coefficients | t Value | p Value | 95% Confidence Intervals | Significance (p < 0.05)? ** | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||||
Total | ||||||
Direct effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss | 0.363 | 13.701 | 0.000 | 0.320 | 0.423 * | Yes |
Perceived Discrimination → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.134 | 4.272 | 0.000 | 0.074 | 0.198 * | Yes |
Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.118 | 4.353 | 0.000 | 0.063 | 0.171 * | Yes |
Age → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.275 | 10.607 | 0.000 | 0.223 | 0.324 * | Yes |
Length of Residence → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.020 | 0.611 | 0.541 | −0.044 | 0.084 | No |
Indirect effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.043 | 4.027 | 0.000 | 0.023 | 0.065 * | Yes |
Africa | ||||||
Direct effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss | 0.385 | 9.616 | 0.000 | 0.334 | 0.491 * | Yes |
Perceived Discrimination → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.127 | 2.221 | 0.026 | 0.024 | 0.248 * | Yes |
Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.107 | 2.141 | 0.032 | 0.004 | 0.200 * | Yes |
Age → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.293 | 6.328 | 0.000 | 0.197 | 0.380 * | Yes |
Length of Residence → Cardiovascular Risk | −0.030 | 0.505 | 0.614 | −0.141 | 0.086 | No |
Indirect effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.041 | 1.973 | 0.048 | 0.002 | 0.085 * | Yes |
Latin America | ||||||
Direct effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss | 0.377 | 8.707 | 0.000 | 0.310 | 0.479 * | Yes |
Perceived Discrimination → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.213 | 3.453 | 0.001 | 0.093 | 0.333 * | Yes |
Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.116 | 2.569 | 0.010 | 0.025 | 0.198 * | Yes |
Age → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.290 | 6.808 | 0.000 | 0.206 | 0.370 * | Yes |
Length of Residence → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.148 | 2.869 | 0.004 | 0.041 | 0.245 * | Yes |
Indirect effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.044 | 2.283 | 0.022 | 0.010 | 0.085 * | Yes |
Europe | ||||||
Direct effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss | 0.395 | 7.274 | 0.000 | 0.301 | 0.516 * | Yes |
Perceived Discrimination → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.112 | 1.269 | 0.204 | −0.054 | 0.286 | No |
Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.109 | 2.022 | 0.043 | 0.000 | 0.210 | No |
Age → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.254 | 4.997 | 0.000 | 0.149 | 0.348 * | Yes |
Length of Residence → Cardiovascular Risk | −0.052 | 1.072 | 0.284 | −0.145 | 0.048 | No |
Indirect effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.043 | 1.894 | 0.058 | 0.000 | 0.090 | No |
Women | ||||||
Direct effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss | 0.341 | 8.346 | 0.000 | 0.272 | 0.432 * | Yes |
Perceived Discrimination → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.186 | 3.413 | 0.001 | 0.085 | 0.303 * | Yes |
Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.116 | 3.300 | 0.001 | 0.044 | 0.184 * | Yes |
Age → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.258 | 7.052 | 0.000 | 0.185 | 0.328 * | Yes |
Length of Residence → Cardiovascular Risk | −0.029 | 0.621 | 0.535 | −0.117 | 0.067 | No |
Indirect effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.040 | 2.952 | 0.003 | 0.015 | 0.068 * | Yes |
Men | ||||||
Direct effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss | 0.404 | 11.498 | 0.000 | 0.354 | 0.491 * | Yes |
Perceived Discrimination → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.067 | 1.439 | 0.150 | −0.023 | 0.163 | No |
Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.143 | 3.218 | 0.001 | 0.052 | 0.226 * | Yes |
Age → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.293 | 8.051 | 0.000 | 0.220 | 0.363 * | Yes |
Length of Residence → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.066 | 1.420 | 0.156 | −0.023 | 0.159 | No |
Indirect effect | ||||||
Perceived Discrimination → Psychological Distresss → Cardiovascular Risk | 0.058 | 2.969 | 0.003 | 0.022 | 0.098 * | Yes |
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Martos-Méndez, M.J.; García-Cid, A.; Gómez-Jacinto, L.; Hombrados-Mendieta, I. Perceived Discrimination, Psychological Distress and Cardiovascular Risk in Migrants in Spain. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 4601. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124601
Martos-Méndez MJ, García-Cid A, Gómez-Jacinto L, Hombrados-Mendieta I. Perceived Discrimination, Psychological Distress and Cardiovascular Risk in Migrants in Spain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(12):4601. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124601
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartos-Méndez, María José, Alba García-Cid, Luis Gómez-Jacinto, and Isabel Hombrados-Mendieta. 2020. "Perceived Discrimination, Psychological Distress and Cardiovascular Risk in Migrants in Spain" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 12: 4601. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124601
APA StyleMartos-Méndez, M. J., García-Cid, A., Gómez-Jacinto, L., & Hombrados-Mendieta, I. (2020). Perceived Discrimination, Psychological Distress and Cardiovascular Risk in Migrants in Spain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4601. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124601