Automated Classification of Normal Control and Early-Stage Dementia Based on Activities of Daily Living (ADL) Data Acquired from Smart Home Environment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Smart-Home-Based Activities of Daily Living
2.2. Feature Selection
2.2.1. Basic Data Preprocessing
2.2.2. Personalization
2.2.3. Feature Generation
2.3. Classification between the Normal Controls and Those with Early-Stage Dementia
2.3.1. Statistical Method-Based Classification
2.3.2. Machine-Learning-Based Classification
3. Experiments
3.1. Experimental Environments
3.2. Experimental Results
- ‘refrigerator ⇔ kitchen sink faucet’: normal control group (r = 0.41), early-stage dementia group (r = 0.16);
- ‘refrigerator ⇔ gas stove’: normal control group (r = 0.36), early-stage dementia group (r = 0.32);
- ‘kitchen sink faucet ⇔ rice cooker’: normal control group (r = 0.35), early-stage dementia group (r = −0.14).
- True Positive (TP): Correct prediction as true when the actual class is true (correct prediction);
- False Positive (FP): Incorrect prediction as true when the actual class is false (incorrect prediction);
- False Negative (FN): Incorrect prediction as false when the actual class is true (incorrect prediction);
- True Negative (TN): Correct prediction as false when the actual class is false (correct prediction).
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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No | ADL Assessment Items | Place of Installation | Sensors Used |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Cooking | Microwave oven | Door sensor |
Refrigerator | Vibration sensor | ||
Rice cooker | Vibration sensor | ||
Kitchen sink faucet | Vibration sensor | ||
Gas stove | Temperature–humidity sensor | ||
Kitchen | Motion sensor | ||
2 | Unlocking and closing entrance door | Entrance | Door sensor |
Household appliances | Smart plug | ||
3 | Using household appliances | Electric mat | Smart plug |
TV | Smart plug | ||
Fan | Vibration sensor | ||
4 | Household chores | Housecleaning—washing machine | Smart plug |
Housecleaning—bin, vacuum cleaner | Vibration sensor | ||
Washing dishes—Kitchen sink faucet | Vibration sensor | ||
5 | Grooming | Washbasin, showerhead—bathroom faucet | Vibration sensor |
Bathroom | Temperature–humidity sensor | ||
6 | Taking medications | Pill organizer | Vibration sensor |
7 | Indoor wandering | Path of indoor movement and gait speed | Lidar sensor |
Room | Motion sensor | ||
Living room | Motion sensor |
Time | d1 | d2 | d3 | m2 | m3 | m5 | m6 | p2 | p3 | p4 | t1 | v1 | v2 | v3 | v4 | v5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
6 July 2020 | 11 | 4 | 2 | 90 | 3 | 22 | 10 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 0 | 2 | 4 |
7 July 2020 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 78 | 1 | 26 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 6 | 3 |
8 July 2020 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 111 | 3 | 9 | 8 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
10 July 2020 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 103 | 0 | 13 | 9 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 10 | 0 | 5 | 5 |
11 July 2020 | 13 | 4 | 0 | 115 | 0 | 36 | 9 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 4 | 2 |
13 July 2020 | 9 | 4 | 0 | 112 | 0 | 19 | 10 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 12 | 3 | 24 | 1 |
15 July 2020 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 125 | 0 | 23 | 9 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 11 | 0 | 10 | 5 |
Category | Level of Cognitive Function | MMSE | Range of Personalized Anomaly Detection Criteria |
---|---|---|---|
Normal controls | No Cognitive Decline | 30 | When the MMSE score is out of “Lower Q1 − 1.5 × IQR/Upper Q3 + 1.5 × IQR” |
Very Mild Cognitive Decline | ~ | When the MMSE score is out of “Lower Q1 − 1.2 × IQR/Upper Q3 + 1.2 × IQR” | |
Mild Cognitive Decline | 24 | When the MMSE score is out of “Lower Q1 − 1 × IQR/Upper Q3 + 1 × IQR” | |
Early-stage Dementia | Moderate Cognitive Decline | 23 ~ | When the MMSE score is out of “Lower Q1 − 0.5 × IQR/Upper Q3 + 0.5 × IQR” |
Type of Analysis Data | Description | |
---|---|---|
IoT sensor data | IoT Count | All counts detected by the vibration sensor or motion sensor |
IoT Duration | Duration of movement detected in front of the motion sensor | |
Lidar | Indoor movement distance and gait speed detected by 2D-Lidar | |
ADL data | ADL Count | Number of times ADL activities were performed (6 types + indoor wandering) |
ADL Duration | Time taken for ADL activities (6 types + indoor wandering) |
ADL Item | Feature | Description |
---|---|---|
Indoor wandering | Movement in a room | Data of the participant’s movements in a room |
Indoor wandering late at night | All sensor data recorded between 00.00 and 5.00 | |
Unlocking and closing entrance door | Going out | Data from the time of closing the door and to the opening of the door. In case there was a sensor that started operation, this case was not considered as going out. |
No locking of the entrance door | Data for cases of the sensor operation during the time of the participant’s going out. | |
Household chores | Laundering (washing machine) | Data of washing machine use from the start to the end of the washing machine operation |
Washing dishes | Data of using kitchen sink faucet for longer than 30 s | |
Cooking | Cooking | When two or more kitchen appliances had been used and the temperature of a gas stove had increased (including all cooking for less than 30 min) |
Breakfast cooking | Cooking between 5:00 and 10:00 | |
Lunch cooking | Cooking between 12:00 and 15:00 | |
Dinner cooking | Cooking between 17:00 and 20:00 | |
Cooking for over 30 min | Cooking data lasting longer than 30 min | |
Cooking (gas stove—microwave oven) | When the sensors used during cooking included the gas stove and microwave oven | |
Cooking (refrigerator—kitchen sink faucet) | When the sensors used during cooking included the refrigerator and kitchen sink faucet | |
Cooking (refrigerator—gas stove) | When the sensors used during cooking included the refrigerator and gas stove | |
Cooking (kitchen sink faucet— rice cooker) | When the sensors used during cooking included the kitchen sink faucet and rice cooker | |
Heating food (microwave oven) | When the sensors used during cooking included the microwave oven but not the gas stove | |
Taking medications | Morning medications | Taking medications between 5:00 and 10:00 |
Lunchtime medications | Taking medications between 12:00 and 15:00 | |
Evening medications | Taking medications between 17:00 and 20:00 | |
Medications before going to bed | Taking medications between 21:00 and 24:00 | |
Grooming (personal hygiene) | Use of bathroom faucet (Nighttime) | All the data with the start time of the bathroom faucet use between 00:00 and 04:00 |
Use of showerhead | Use of the showerhead installed in the bathroom faucet | |
Use of bathroom faucet for more than 1 min | Use of bathroom faucet over 1 min but not the showerhead | |
Bathroom faucet (total) | Data for all hours of bathroom faucet use | |
Using household appliances | TV (total) | Total hours of watching TV over 24 h |
TV watching in the morning | TV watching between 04:00 and 12:00 | |
TV watching at night | TV watching between 00:00 and 04:00 | |
TV after going out | Data of TV turned on for 30 min after the participant’s returning from going out | |
Electric mat (total) | Total hours of using electric mat over 24 h | |
Electric mat—Daytime | Use of electric mat between 12:00 and 16:00 | |
Electric mat—Nighttime | Use of electric mat between 00:00 and 04:00 |
Category | Age | MMSE | CDR |
---|---|---|---|
Normal Controls (n = 7) | 86 | 26 | 0 |
79 | 29 | 0 | |
84 | 25 | 0 | |
72 | 27 | 0 | |
67 | 26 | 0 | |
74 | 30 | 0 | |
90 | 30 | 0 | |
Average of Normal Controls | 78.8 | 27.5 | 0 |
Early-stage dementia group (n = 6) | 87 | 20 | 1 |
76 | 13 | 1 | |
86 | 18 | 1 | |
76 | 30 | 0.5 | |
85 | 11 | 1 | |
72 | 14 | 1 | |
Average of early-stage dementia group | 80.3 | 17.6 | 0.92 |
Sensor Location | p-Value |
---|---|
Entrance | 0.03643 (<0.05) |
Microwave oven | 0.4745 |
Gas stove | 6.431 × 10−12 (<0.05) |
TV | 4.363 × 10−7 (<0.05) |
Washing machine | 3.908 × 10−7 (<0.05) |
Pill organizer | 0.1878 |
Refrigerator | 0.003404 (<0.05) |
Rice cooker | 0.03521 (<0.05) |
Kitchen sink faucet | 5.385 × 10−7 (<0.05) |
Bathroom faucet | 2.2 × 10−16 (<0.05) |
ADL | p-Value |
---|---|
Grooming | 6.728 × 10−15 (<0.05) |
Using household appliances | 1.063 × 10−7 (<0.05) |
Cooking | 0.01343 (<0.05) |
Household chores | 0.9674 |
Statistic | Gait Speed of Normal Controls (km/h) | Gait Speed of Early-Stage Dementia Group (km/h) |
---|---|---|
Min | 0.600 | 0.6007 |
Median | 0.930 | 1.0803 |
Mean | 1.023 | 1.2091 |
Max | 5.615 | 3.9251 |
Feature Set | Patients# | Data# | Mean Data Length | Feature# (IoT) | Feature#(ADL) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
IoT | 13 (NC: 7, Dem: 6) | 20,184 (Dem: 7800, NC: 12,384) | 1441 (Dem: 1114, NC: 1769) | 132 | . |
ADL | 13 (NC: 7, Dem: 6) | 20,184 (Dem: 7800, NC: 12,384) | 1441 (Dem: 1114, NC: 1769) | . | 63 |
IoT + ADL | 13 (NC: 7, Dem: 6) | 20,184 (Dem: 7800, NC: 12,384) | 1441 (Dem: 1114, NC: 1769) | 132 | 63 |
Before Personalization | After Personalization | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IoT | ADL | IoT + ADL | IoT | ADL | IoT + ADL | |
Precision | 80.65% | 63.99% | 79.47% | 85.29% | 79.62% | 88.47% |
Recall | 71.43% | 59.08% | 81.87% | 82.62% | 76.92% | 90.03% |
F1-score | 75.76% | 61.44% | 80.65% | 83.94% | 78.25% | 89.24% |
Accuracy | 80.98% | 65.52% | 84.54% | 86.80% | 83.47% | 91.20% |
No | Major Features with a Significant Impact |
---|---|
1 | Duration of using electric mat (Late-night hours from 0:00 to 5:00 and Evening hours from 17:00 to 24:00) |
2 | Duration of using microwave oven (Late-night hours from 0:00 to 5:00) |
3 | Duration of TV watching (Late-night hours from 0:00 to 5:00) |
4 | Duration of using cooking appliances (Refrigerator-gas stove) |
5 | Duration of using gas stove (Daytime hours from 11:00 to 17:00 and Evening hours from 17:00 to 24:00) |
6 | Duration of using showerhead |
7 | Duration of using entrance |
8 | Duration of using bathroom faucet |
9 | Duration of using washing machine (Morning hours from 5:00 to 11:00) |
10 | Duration of using refrigerator |
11 | Duration of washing dishes |
12 | Duration of using cooking appliances (refrigerator-kitchen sink faucet) |
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Kwon, L.-N.; Yang, D.-H.; Hwang, M.-G.; Lim, S.-J.; Kim, Y.-K.; Kim, J.-G.; Cho, K.-H.; Chun, H.-W.; Park, K.-W. Automated Classification of Normal Control and Early-Stage Dementia Based on Activities of Daily Living (ADL) Data Acquired from Smart Home Environment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 13235. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182413235
Kwon L-N, Yang D-H, Hwang M-G, Lim S-J, Kim Y-K, Kim J-G, Cho K-H, Chun H-W, Park K-W. Automated Classification of Normal Control and Early-Stage Dementia Based on Activities of Daily Living (ADL) Data Acquired from Smart Home Environment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(24):13235. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182413235
Chicago/Turabian StyleKwon, Lee-Nam, Dong-Hun Yang, Myung-Gwon Hwang, Soo-Jin Lim, Young-Kuk Kim, Jae-Gyum Kim, Kwang-Hee Cho, Hong-Woo Chun, and Kun-Woo Park. 2021. "Automated Classification of Normal Control and Early-Stage Dementia Based on Activities of Daily Living (ADL) Data Acquired from Smart Home Environment" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 24: 13235. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182413235
APA StyleKwon, L. -N., Yang, D. -H., Hwang, M. -G., Lim, S. -J., Kim, Y. -K., Kim, J. -G., Cho, K. -H., Chun, H. -W., & Park, K. -W. (2021). Automated Classification of Normal Control and Early-Stage Dementia Based on Activities of Daily Living (ADL) Data Acquired from Smart Home Environment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(24), 13235. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182413235