Convergence of Energy Intensity of the Export of Goods by Rail Transport: Linkages with the Spatial Integration and Economic Condition of Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- 1.
- Does the improvement of the economic situation of the importing country reduce the energy intensity of Polish export of goods by rail transport to the partner country?
- 2.
- Does EU integration contribute to reducing the energy intensity of the export of goods by rail transport?
- 3.
- Is there a positive spatial effect (convergence) of reducing the energy intensity of the export of goods by rail transport?
2. Background of Rail Transport Development
2.1. A Brief History of Rail Transport
2.2. Rail Transport in the Light of Sustainable Development, Energy Dependency, and COVID-19
2.3. Energy Consumption of Rail Transport as a Multidimensional Problem
- Eco-driving [97].
2.4. Linkages between Rail Transport and Export
3. Data and Methodology
3.1. Data
3.2. Methodology
- 1.
- Does the improvement of the economic situation of the importing country reduce the energy intensity of the Polish export of goods by rail transport to the partner country?
- 2.
- Does EU integration contribute to reducing the energy intensity of the export of goods by rail transport?
- 3.
- Is there a positive spatial effect (convergence) of reducing the energy intensity of the export of goods by rail transport?
- —energy intensity of goods exported by rail transport from Poland to other importing countries i in year t
- —lagged energy intensity of goods exported by rail transport from Poland to other importing countries i in year t
- —volume of transport of goods exported by rail transport from Poland to the importing country i in year t
- —average transport distance of 1 tonne of goods exported by rail transport from Poland to the partner country (importer) i in year t
- —gross domestic product in the importing country i in year t
- —spatially lagged energy intensity of goods exported by rail transport from Poland to other importing countries i in year t
- —structural parameters for endogenous variables
- —structural parameters for exogenous variables
- —spatial autoregressive parameter
- —random component
- T—number of years in the analyzed period
- α1—structural parameter for endogenous variables from Equation (1)
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Findings and Explanations
- 1.
- An increase in the volume of goods exported from Poland to partner countries by 1% will result in a decrease in the energy intensity of the exportation of these goods by rail transport by 0.023%, ceteris paribus. The elasticity of energy intensity of rail transport is 0.023 with other factors unchanged. It means that the energy intensity of rail transport is inelastic (the percentage change in the energy intensity of rail transport is smaller than the percentage change in the volume of exports). The magnitude of this flexibility may suggest that considering the criterion of energy intensity, rail transport is hardly substitutable and is used to transport specific groups of cargo at a similar volume level during the period in question (slightly changing the volume of exports by rail transport). Therefore, rail transport should be used for the transport of relatively large loads, bulk, and heavy loads (taking into account the maximization of the use of wagons [137]) instead of transport modes that are much more energy-intensive (including road and air transport) and the role of rail transport in the breakdown transport tasks in international relations should increase (in sense of an increase in the potential of rail transport) [15,108].
- 2.
- An increase in the average transport distance of one tonne of exported goods by 1% will result in a decrease in the energy intensity of rail transport by as much as 0.8492%, ceteris paribus. The elasticity of the energy intensity of this transport under the influence of changes in the average distance is much higher than under the influence of changes in the volume of exports, although it can also be described as inelastic according to the theory of economics. However, it can be said without any doubt that the long-distance export of cargo by rail reduces energy intensity to a relatively low level. At the same time, it provides the basis for the promotion of this mode of transport in long-distance international transport, especially for relatively heavy loads, bulk, heavy loads, or containers, which is in line with the sustainable development policy and the shift paradigm [15,47,138,139].
- 3.
- An increase in GDP by 1% will increase the energy intensity of the export of goods by rail transport by 1.017%. With other conditions unchanged, it can be concluded that the elasticity of the energy intensity of the export of goods by rail transport under the influence of changes in GDP is almost proportional. The energy intensity of this transport increases as much as GDP. If the GDP of individual countries increases, the socio-economic conditions of these countries improve, as well as their import possibilities. Investments increase and, at the same time, the demand for transport services increases, which creates an increase in transport activity in various directions. This generates more and more energy intensity of transport if it does not go hand in hand with technological progress.
4.2. The Role of Rail Transport in Combined Transport in the View of Technological Evolution
- IT and telematics solutions (e.g., electronic documentation, tracking of shipments, motor vehicles, trains, wagons, etc.);
- Optimization of travel routes to/from the terminal from/to the client, dynamic response to changing conditions on the route (road transport);
- Optimization of the time of changing the means of transport by the load unit in rail–road terminals, which requires good work organization both on the side of carriers (rail and road) and the terminal;
- Appropriate technical speeds of freight trains—especially fast freight trains running between terminals (depending on the condition of the rail infrastructure, condition of railway traffic control (RTC) devices, and condition of rolling stock);
- Appropriate commercial speeds for freight trains; proper organization of freight transport understood also through the prism of shuttle transport between terminals without unnecessary stops along the route, including railway lines dedicated (or with preference, e.g., at night) to freight transport;
- Good synchronization of the time of arrival at the terminal with departure (truck → train, train → truck)—elimination or minimization of possible temporary storage of load units.
- A rise in the need for transport, accompanied by difficulty in supplying that need alone by road transportation;
- The need to protect the environment (including reducing energy consumption), which determines the directions of development of the economy and transport;
- Shifting the weight of transportation demands (user preferences)—raising the significance of timeliness and flexibility;
- The deterioration of the quality of road transport services, as well as the rising costs of congestion;
- Development of multiple forms of combined transport, e.g., transport of swap bodies, semi-trailers, and containers; transport of full motor vehicles (ro-la), bimodal transport (allows you to select the best option based on the size of the load lot, company fleet, transport distances, and other characteristics).
- Reducing the dependence of European economies on energy imports;
- Reduction of the carbon footprint to 90% generated by land freight transport;
- Easing traffic congestion by shifting freight from road transport to rail transport;
- Mitigation of harmful emissions of noise, particulate matter, and other environmental pollutants;
- Mitigation of road infrastructure degradation.
- The customer through greater punctuality, and transport time comparable to road transport, ensuring door-to-door transport and greater reliability;
- Road haulers by making more efficient use of transportation means; intermodal unit is transported by rail and road vehicles can be used for other short-distance transport; labor savings;
- The rail transport by providing more rail freight volumes, enabling shorter turnaround times for block trains;
- The environment (from the point of view of external cost [142]) by reducing road traffic, energy intensity, air pollution, noise, and land use; increasing safety.
- Energy crisis and EU independence;
- European Green Deal;
- European Climate Law;
- Strategy for Smart and Sustainable Mobility;
- Climate change;
- War in Ukraine.
- Digital transformation (en13044 revision; EDIGES; TAF TSI revision; eFTI Regulation; ILU-Code; ILU-Register (FENIX Project));
- Environment and decarbonization (CESAR; KV4.0; CT4U campaign);
- Dangerous goods and waste transport (Waste Shipment Regulation; Digital Automatic Coupling for intermodal wagons; COTIF/RID);
- CT Assets (AEROFLEX Project; Weights and Dimensions);
- EU road haulage rules (ERA Register for Infrastructure (RINF); Q-ELETA Project; Digital Train 2.0; Rail Freight Corridor Regulation; Eurovignette Directive);
- Rail freight: infrastructure and quality (TEN-T Regulation Track Access Charging; Regulation on waiving of track access charges; state aid guidelines);
- Transshipment terminals (crisis management (Danish safety incidents; LL block issues; rail traffic disturbances; Ukraine war effort); ERA Intermodal Task Force; CACTUS Project; EU railway standards);
- Intermodal transportation (RNE WG on Combined Transport; PLANET Project; Combined Transport Directive; Rail Facilities Portal).
- The Action Digital Train 1.0—makes it possible to identify the benefits of mining data on the composition of the train and the train’s course; enables the calculation of the estimated time of arrivals (ETAs) based on artificial intelligence;
- The Action Digital Train 2.0 (continuation of 1.0)—aims to integrate all stakeholders interested in the development of the Q-ELETA Quality Management System (QMS) for European combined transport operations; Q-ELETA will increase predictability and punctuality in the long term;
- Project COMBINE—the aim was to assess the potential of combined transport in the Baltic Sea region; the final task was to create a database of national regulations for combined transport;
- The aim of the H2020 project AEROFLEX was to develop and demonstrate new vehicle technologies and architectures with optimized aerodynamics, powertrains and safety systems, and flexible load units. As part of this project, load tests were carried out on four different rail systems and tests for deformation or other damage; one of the goals was to achieve energy savings of 4–5% by using separate platforms [144];
- FENIX (European Federated Network of Information eXchange in LogistiX)—the goal is to develop, implement and validate digital information systems along the EU transport Core Network. The aim was, inter alia, to facilitate cross-border rail freight transport through eCMR (paperless transport in intermodal transport with the possibility of exchanging road–rail documents; e-Gate (technology that improves the data exchange gate in the terminal/hub, also at the level of the ILU code register); e-FTI (Business-to-Administration (B2A) digital communication tool) [145,146].
5. Conclusions
- 1.
- Increasing the share of rail transport in transport chains [147,148,149] (intermodal transport; consultations in Poland are currently underway on the program “Directions of development of intermodal transport until 2030 with a perspective until 2040” [150]—its purpose is to identify the directions of development of transport and financing needs from the perspective of 2021–2027).
- 2.
- 3.
- 4.
- Increase in productivity and decrease energy intensity (longer and heavier trains) [156].
- 5.
- 6.
- 7.
- 8.
- 9.
- 10.
- Information sharing and joint bug fixing—affect development, reliability, and punctuality (especially in sense of open access to the Single European Rail Area (SERA)) [166].
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Country/ies | Year | First Rail Line |
---|---|---|
Czech Republic/Austria | 1828 | České Budějovice–Linz |
France | 1830 | Saint-Étienne–Lyon |
Ireland | 1834 | Dublin–Kingstown (now now Dún Laoghaire) |
Belgium | 1835 | Brussels–Mechelen |
Germany | 1837 | Leipzig–Dresden |
Russia | 1837 | Tsarskoye Selo–Saint Petersburg |
Netherlands | 1839 | Amsterdam–Haarlem |
Belgium/France | 1842 | Mouscron–Tourcoing |
Poland | 1844 | Warsaw–Pruszków |
Hungary | 1846 | Pest–Vác |
Spain | 1848 | Barcelona–Mataró |
Norway | 1854 | Oslo–Eidsvoll |
Romania/Serbia | 1854 | Lisava–Oravica–Bazijaš |
Portugal | 1856 | Lisbon–Carregado |
Poland/Russia | 1862 | Warsaw–Saint Petersburg |
Economic Category | Variable | Unit | Database |
---|---|---|---|
Export goods by rail transport | vol | volume in thousands of tonnes | [109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120] |
Transport performance for export goods by rail transport | TKM | mln tkm (millions tonne-kilometers) | [109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120] |
Average transport distance of 1 tonne of goods exported by rail transport | dist | kilometers | [109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120] and authors’ computations |
Economic growth | GDP | PPP in current international $ | [121] |
Energy consumption of rail transport | EC | toe (tonnes of oil equivalent) | authors’ computation described in Section 3.2. of this article |
Energy intensity of standard-gauge diesel traction—cargo | EI_D | MJ/thousands gross tkm | [122] |
Energy intensity of standard-gauge electric traction—cargo | EI_E | MJ/thousands gross tkm | [122] |
Rolling stock operation—diesel traction (freight trains) | RT_D | millions total gross tkm | [109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120] |
Rolling stock operation—electric traction (freight trains) | RT_E | millions total gross tkm | [109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120] |
Energy intensity of export of goods by rail transport | EI | kgoe/thousands tkm (kilograms of oil equivalent/thousands of tonne-kilometers) | authors’ computation described in Section 3.2. of this article |
Variable | Mean | Standard Deviation | Coefficient of Variation |
---|---|---|---|
EI | 3.68 | 3.11 | 0.8472 |
vol | 1151.40 | 1810.20 | 1.5722 |
dist | 313.69 | 143.65 | 0.4580 |
GDP | 1.25 × 1012 | 1.21 × 1012 | 0.9720 |
Export Destination | Mean | Standard Deviation | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EI | Vol | Dist | GDP | EI | Vol | Dist | GDP | |
Austria | 10.81 | 1852.18 | 74.20 | 4.38 × 1011 | 2.25 | 140.54 | 6.99 | 5.58 × 1010 |
Belgium | 1.83 | 173.74 | 441.98 | 5.30 × 1011 | 0.41 | 88.60 | 64.78 | 6.66 × 1010 |
Czech Republic | 4.41 | 3607.45 | 196.71 | 3.69 × 1011 | 1.03 | 1745.42 | 90.10 | 6.08 × 1010 |
Denmark | 2.03 | 170.82 | 400.39 | 2.90 × 1011 | 0.44 | 89.02 | 78.91 | 4.05 × 1010 |
France | 1.91 | 296.91 | 416.34 | 2.79 × 1012 | 0.23 | 150.07 | 48.40 | 3.22 × 1011 |
Germany | 2.06 | 5800.64 | 387.02 | 3.98 × 1012 | 0.16 | 2965.35 | 67.10 | 5.16 × 1011 |
Hungary | 4.85 | 319.64 | 218.04 | 2.70 × 1011 | 3.17 | 180.07 | 105.10 | 3.92 × 1010 |
Italy | 4.83 | 722.09 | 322.07 | 2.34 × 1012 | 5.91 | 255.45 | 158.76 | 2.00 × 1011 |
Netherlands | 2.58 | 364.18 | 337.12 | 8.83 × 1011 | 0.72 | 161.80 | 142.18 | 1.02 × 1011 |
Romania | 5.12 | 485.91 | 176.41 | 4.71 × 1011 | 2.04 | 179.41 | 66.86 | 1.01 × 1011 |
Slovakia | 4.75 | 1081.91 | 176.86 | 1.58 × 1011 | 1.56 | 384.66 | 41.63 | 1.27 × 1010 |
Spain | 2.50 | 326.18 | 390.96 | 1.67 × 1012 | 1.82 | 177.44 | 118.61 | 1.83 × 1011 |
Sweden | 1.94 | 398.27 | 410.88 | 4.85 × 1011 | 0.31 | 78.58 | 36.16 | 5.95 × 1010 |
United Kingdom | 1.83 | 519.27 | 442.59 | 2.79 × 1012 | 0.45 | 282.82 | 54.05 | 3.43 × 1011 |
Items | Coefficient | Standard Error | z | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
α0 | −0.0676 | 0.0030 | −22.9058 | <0.0001 | *** |
−0.0631 | 0.0200 | −3.1580 | 0.0016 | *** | |
−0.0230 | 0.0095 | −2.4136 | 0.0158 | ** | |
−0.8492 | 0.0103 | −82.1267 | <0.0001 | *** | |
1.0170 | 0.1221 | 8.3318 | <0.0001 | *** | |
0.0866 | 0.0143 | 6.0409 | <0.0001 | *** |
Test | Eit | ln(Eit) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Individual Intercept | Individual Intercept and Trend | None | Individual Intercept | Individual Intercept and Trend | None | |
Levin, Lin, Chu (common root) | −14.1331 [0.0000] | −17.9370 [0.0000] | −3.1692 [0.0000] | −8.7521 [0.0000] | −10.5778 [0.0000] | −3.4498 [0.0003] |
Breitung (common root) | - | −1.6760 [0.0469] | - | - | −1.3401 [0.0901] | - |
Im, Pesaran and Shin (individual root) | −5.4532 [0.0000] | −2.7863 [0.0027] | - | −3.9874 [0.0000] | −1.5734 [0.0578] | - |
ADF-Fisher (individual root) | 77.6241 [0.0000] | 59.1156 [0.0005] | 41.9663 [0.0437] | 67.3814 [0.0000] | 51.4562 [0.0044] | 47.8606 [0.0111] |
ADF-Choi (individual root) | −4.4376 [0.0000] | −2.9584 [0.0015] | −2.1482 [0.0158] | −3.8674 [0.0001] | −2.4212 [0.0077] | −2.5094 [0.0060] |
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Szaruga, E.; Załoga, E.; Drewnowski, A.; Dąbrosz-Drewnowska, P. Convergence of Energy Intensity of the Export of Goods by Rail Transport: Linkages with the Spatial Integration and Economic Condition of Countries. Energies 2023, 16, 3823. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093823
Szaruga E, Załoga E, Drewnowski A, Dąbrosz-Drewnowska P. Convergence of Energy Intensity of the Export of Goods by Rail Transport: Linkages with the Spatial Integration and Economic Condition of Countries. Energies. 2023; 16(9):3823. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093823
Chicago/Turabian StyleSzaruga, Elżbieta, Elżbieta Załoga, Arkadiusz Drewnowski, and Paulina Dąbrosz-Drewnowska. 2023. "Convergence of Energy Intensity of the Export of Goods by Rail Transport: Linkages with the Spatial Integration and Economic Condition of Countries" Energies 16, no. 9: 3823. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093823
APA StyleSzaruga, E., Załoga, E., Drewnowski, A., & Dąbrosz-Drewnowska, P. (2023). Convergence of Energy Intensity of the Export of Goods by Rail Transport: Linkages with the Spatial Integration and Economic Condition of Countries. Energies, 16(9), 3823. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093823