Energies

139 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Hydrides: Fundamentals and Applications

by Craig M. Jensen, Etsuo Akiba and Hai-Wen Li

Energies 2016, 9(4), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040308 - 22 Apr 2016

Viewed by 4470

Abstract

Both the Japanese and Hawaiian archipelagos are both completely devoid of petroleum resources.[...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrides: Fundamentals and Applications)

8931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Optimal Integrated Control Scheme for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator-Based Wind Turbines under Asymmetrical Grid Fault Conditions

by Dan Wang, Chongru Liu and Gengyin Li

Energies 2016, 9(4), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040307 - 22 Apr 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5996

Abstract

In recent years, the increasing penetration level of wind energy into power systems has brought new issues and challenges. One of the main concerns is the issue of dynamic response capability during outer disturbance conditions, especially the fault-tolerance capability during asymmetrical faults. In [...] Read more.

In recent years, the increasing penetration level of wind energy into power systems has brought new issues and challenges. One of the main concerns is the issue of dynamic response capability during outer disturbance conditions, especially the fault-tolerance capability during asymmetrical faults. In order to improve the fault-tolerance and dynamic response capability under asymmetrical grid fault conditions, an optimal integrated control scheme for the grid-side voltage-source converter (VSC) of direct-driven permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG)-based wind turbine systems is proposed in this paper. The optimal control strategy includes a main controller and an additional controller. In the main controller, a double-loop controller based on differential flatness-based theory is designed for grid-side VSC. Two parts are involved in the design process of the flatness-based controller: the reference trajectories generation of flatness output and the implementation of the controller. In the additional control aspect, an auxiliary second harmonic compensation control loop based on an improved calculation method for grid-side instantaneous transmission power is designed by the quasi proportional resonant (Quasi-PR) control principle, which is able to simultaneously restrain the second harmonic components in active power and reactive power injected into the grid without the respective calculation for current control references. Moreover, to reduce the DC-link overvoltage during grid faults, the mathematical model of DC-link voltage is analyzed and a feedforward modified control factor is added to the traditional DC voltage control loop in grid-side VSC. The effectiveness of the optimal control scheme is verified in PSCAD/EMTDC simulation software. Full article

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5527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interaction and Coordination among Nuclear Power Plants, Power Grids and Their Protection Systems

by Guoyang Wu, Ping Ju, Xinli Song, Chenglong Xie and Wuzhi Zhong

Energies 2016, 9(4), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040306 - 21 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7698

Abstract

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) have recently undergone rapid development in China. To improve the performance of both NPPs and grids during adverse conditions, a precise understanding of the coordination between NPPs and grids is required. Therefore, a new mathematical model with reasonable accuracy [...] Read more.

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) have recently undergone rapid development in China. To improve the performance of both NPPs and grids during adverse conditions, a precise understanding of the coordination between NPPs and grids is required. Therefore, a new mathematical model with reasonable accuracy and reduced computational complexity is developed. This model is applicable to the short, mid, and long-term dynamic simulation of large-scale power systems. The effectiveness of the model is verified by using an actual NPP full-scope simulator as a reference. Based on this model, the interaction and coordination between NPPs and grids under the conditions of over-frequency, under-frequency and under-voltage are analyzed, with special stress applied to the effect of protection systems on the safe operation of both NPPs and power grids. Finally, the coordinated control principles and schemes, together with the recommended protection system values, are proposed for both NPPs and grids. These results show that coordination between the protection systems of NPPs and power networks is a crucial factor in ensuring the safe and stable operation of both NPPs and grids. The results can be used as a reference for coordination between NPPs and grids, as well as for parameter optimization of grid-related generator protection of NPPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Power Systems Research)

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1879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parametric Analysis of a Rotary Type Liquid Desiccant Air Conditioning System

by M. Mujahid Rafique, Shafiqur Rehman, Luai M. Alhems and Aref Lashin

Energies 2016, 9(4), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040305 - 21 Apr 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6454

Abstract

Now days, air conditioning systems are a must for almost every commercial and residential building to achieve comfortable indoor conditions. The increasing energy demand, and increasing oil prices and pollution levels raise the need for alternative air conditioning systems which can efficiently utilize [...] Read more.

Now days, air conditioning systems are a must for almost every commercial and residential building to achieve comfortable indoor conditions. The increasing energy demand, and increasing oil prices and pollution levels raise the need for alternative air conditioning systems which can efficiently utilize renewable energy resources. The liquid desiccant-based air conditioning method is pollution free and thermal energy-based cooling techniques can use low grade thermal energy resources like solar energy, waste heat, etc. These systems have an additional advantage of cleaning bacteria and fungi from the air. In this paper, a newly proposed rotary liquid desiccant air conditioning system has been investigated theoretically. Most direct contact liquid desiccant cooling systems have the problem of desiccant carryover which can be eliminated using the proposed system. The effects of various key parameters and climatic conditions on the performance of the system have been evaluated. The results showed that if the key parameters of the system are controlled effectively, the proposed cooling system has the ability to achieve the desired supply air conditions. The system can achieve high coefficient of performance (COP) under different conditions. The dehumidifier has a sensible heat ratio (SHR) in the range of 0.3–0.6 for different design, climatic, and operating conditions. The system can remove latent load efficiently in applications which require good humidity control. Full article

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9376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decreasing NO_x of a Low-Speed Two-Stroke Marine Diesel Engine by Using In-Cylinder Emission Control Measures

by Liyan Feng, Jiangping Tian, Wuqiang Long, Weixin Gong, Baoguo Du, Dan Li and Lei Chen

Energies 2016, 9(4), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040304 - 21 Apr 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 11162

Abstract

The authors applied one-dimensional (1-D) simulation and 3-D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation to evaluate the potential of in-cylinder control methods on a low-speed 2-stroke marine engine to reach the International Maritime Organization (IMO) Tier 3 NO_x emissions standards. Reducing the combustion [...] Read more.

The authors applied one-dimensional (1-D) simulation and 3-D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation to evaluate the potential of in-cylinder control methods on a low-speed 2-stroke marine engine to reach the International Maritime Organization (IMO) Tier 3 NO_x emissions standards. Reducing the combustion temperature is an important in-cylinder measure to decrease NO_x emissions of marine diesel engines. Miller-cycle and Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) are effective methods to reduce the maximum combustion temperature and accordingly decrease NO_x emissions. The authors’ calculation results indicate that with a combination of 2-stage turbocharging, a mild Miller-cycle and 10% EGR rate, the NO_x emissions can be decreased by 48% without the increased Specific Fuel Oil Consumption (SFOC) penalties; with a medium Miller-cycle and 10% EGR, NO_x can be decreased by 56% with a slight increase of SFOC; with a medium Miller-cycle and 20% EGR, NO_x can be decreased by 77% and meet IMO Tier 3 standards, but with the high price of a considerable increase of SFOC. The first two schemes are promising to meet IMO Tier 3 standards with good fuel economy if other techniques are combined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Propulsion)

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7714 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Responses of Ecosystem Service to Land Use Change in Qinghai Province

by Ze Han, Wei Song and Xiangzheng Deng

Energies 2016, 9(4), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040303 - 21 Apr 2016

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 7178

Abstract

Qinghai Province has a very fragile ecological environment and is an important component of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. To understand the disturbance caused by human activities to the local ecological system, it is necessary to evaluate the response of ecological service functions to land [...] Read more.

Qinghai Province has a very fragile ecological environment and is an important component of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. To understand the disturbance caused by human activities to the local ecological system, it is necessary to evaluate the response of ecological service functions to land use change in Qinghai Province and to uncover the sensitivity of ecological service functions to land use change. This study uses a proxy-based method and proposes a sensitivity index to describe the degree of ecological service function response to the land use change in Qinghai Province. The findings were as follows. (1) From 1988 to 2008, the area of cultivated land, construction land and water in Qinghai Province increased, and forest land and grassland continuously decreased. The agricultural economy and the development of urbanization are the main driving factors in land use change in this area. Policies and eco-environmental engineering, such as the grain-for-green project, the Three-North shelterbelt project and the natural forest protection project, have certain effects on controlling the expansion of cultivated land. (2) The value of ecosystem services in Qinghai Province was 157.368 billion yuan, 157.149 billion yuan and 157.726 billion yuan in 1988, 2000 and 2008, respectively, decreasing and then increasing again. (3) The average sensitivity index values of ecological services in Qinghai Province for the periods 1988–2000 and 2000–2008 was 0.693 and 1.137, respectively. This means that for every 1% increase in land use change, the ecological service value fluctuated by 0.693% and 1.137% in those periods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Large Scale LUCC, Ecosystem Service, Water Balance and Energy Use)

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9667 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Code-to-Code Validation and Application of a Dynamic Simulation Tool for the Building Energy Performance Analysis

by Annamaria Buonomano

Energies 2016, 9(4), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040301 - 21 Apr 2016

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7313

Abstract

In this paper details about the results of a code-to-code validation procedure of an in-house developed building simulation model, called DETECt, are reported. The tool was developed for research purposes in order to carry out dynamic building energy performance and parametric analyses by [...] Read more.

In this paper details about the results of a code-to-code validation procedure of an in-house developed building simulation model, called DETECt, are reported. The tool was developed for research purposes in order to carry out dynamic building energy performance and parametric analyses by taking into account new building envelope integrated technologies, novel construction materials and innovative energy saving strategies. The reliability and accuracy of DETECt was appropriately tested by means of the standard BESTEST validation procedure. In the paper, details of this validation process are accurately described. A good agreement between the obtained results and all the reference data of the BESTEST qualification cases is achieved. In particular, the obtained results vs. standard BESTEST output are always within the provided ranges of confidence. In addition, several test cases output obtained by DETECt (e.g., dynamic profiles of indoor air and building surfaces temperature and heat fluxes and spatial trends of temperature across walls) are provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Simulation of Polygeneration Systems)

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5260 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power Quality Improvement and LVRT Capability Enhancement of Wind Farms by Means of an Inductive Filtering Method

by Yanjian Peng, Yong Li, Zhisheng Xu, Ming Wen, Longfu Luo, Yijia Cao and Zbigniew Leonowicz

Energies 2016, 9(4), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040302 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5229

Abstract

Unlike the traditional method for power quality improvement and low-voltage ride through (LVRT) capability enhancement of wind farms, this paper proposes a new wind power integrated system by means of an inductive filtering method, especially if it contains a grid-connected transformer, a static [...] Read more.

Unlike the traditional method for power quality improvement and low-voltage ride through (LVRT) capability enhancement of wind farms, this paper proposes a new wind power integrated system by means of an inductive filtering method, especially if it contains a grid-connected transformer, a static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and fully-tuned (FT) branches. First, the main circuit topology of the new wind power integrated system is presented. Then, the mathematical model is established to reveal the mechanism of harmonic suppression and the reactive compensation of the proposed wind power integrated system, and then the realization conditions of the inductive filtering method is obtained. Further, the control strategy of STATCOM is introduced. Based on the measured data for a real wind farm, the simulation studies are carried out to illustrate the performance of the proposed new wind power integrated system. The results indicate that the new system can not only enhance the LVRT capability of wind farms, but also prevent harmonic components flowing into the primary (grid) winding of the grid-connected transformer. Moreover, since the new method can compensate for reactive power in a wind farm, the power factor at the grid side can be improved effectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 15 IEEE International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering (EEEIC 2015))

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5979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Development of a Free Piston Expander–Linear Generator for Small-Scale Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) Waste Heat Recovery System

by Gaosheng Li, Hongguang Zhang, Fubin Yang, Songsong Song, Ying Chang, Fei Yu, Jingfu Wang and Baofeng Yao

Energies 2016, 9(4), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040300 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 10793

Abstract

A novel free piston expander-linear generator (FPE-LG) integrated unit was proposed to recover waste heat efficiently from vehicle engine. This integrated unit can be used in a small-scale Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) system and can directly convert the thermodynamic energy of working fluid [...] Read more.

A novel free piston expander-linear generator (FPE-LG) integrated unit was proposed to recover waste heat efficiently from vehicle engine. This integrated unit can be used in a small-scale Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) system and can directly convert the thermodynamic energy of working fluid into electric energy. The conceptual design of the free piston expander (FPE) was introduced and discussed. A cam plate and the corresponding valve train were used to control the inlet and outlet valve timing of the FPE. The working principle of the FPE-LG was proven to be feasible using an air test rig. The indicated efficiency of the FPE was obtained from the p–V indicator diagram. The dynamic characteristics of the in-cylinder flow field during the intake and exhaust processes of the FPE were analyzed based on Fluent software and 3D numerical simulation models using a computation fluid dynamics method. Results show that the indicated efficiency of the FPE can reach 66.2% and the maximal electric power output of the FPE-LG can reach 22.7 W when the working frequency is 3 Hz and intake pressure is 0.2 MPa. Two large-scale vortices are formed during the intake process because of the non-uniform distribution of velocity and pressure. The vortex flow will convert pressure energy and kinetic energy into thermodynamic energy for the working fluid, which weakens the power capacity of the working fluid. Full article

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7421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study on the Formation of Shear Fracture Network

by Zhaobin Zhang and Xiao Li

Energies 2016, 9(4), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040299 - 20 Apr 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5736

Abstract

Shear fracture network is important to the hydraulic fracturing treatment of a shale gas reservoir. In this paper, the formation of shear fracture network is investigated by a Displacement Discontinuity Method (DDM) based model. The results show that the sliding of fracture surface [...] Read more.

Shear fracture network is important to the hydraulic fracturing treatment of a shale gas reservoir. In this paper, the formation of shear fracture network is investigated by a Displacement Discontinuity Method (DDM) based model. The results show that the sliding of fracture surface is irreversible but may change significantly after fluid pressure dissipates. The final sliding distance is different for natural and hydraulic fractures. Most of the shear fractures are natural fractures while the newly formed hydraulic fractures tend to be totally closed after pressure dissipates. The effects of in situ stress are investigated. The affected area reaches its maximum value when the maximum principle stress direction is perpendicular to the principal fracture direction. The effects of the injection rate are also investigated. The increasing of the injection rate is helpful in increasing the fracture aperture, but has no effect on the final sliding distance. Moreover, the effects of the injection rate on the affected area depend on the connectivity of natural fractures. The affected area increases with the injection rate when the connectivity is poor but decreases slightly with injection rate when the connectivity is good. Full article

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3580 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Objective Predictive Balancing Control of Battery Packs Based on Predictive Current

by Wenbiao Li, Longyun Kang, Xiangwei Guo and Yuan Yao

Energies 2016, 9(4), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040298 - 19 Apr 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4738

Abstract

Various balancing topology and control methods have been proposed for the inconsistency problem of battery packs. However, these strategies only focus on a single objective, ignore the mutual interaction among various factors and are only based on the external performance of the battery [...] Read more.

Various balancing topology and control methods have been proposed for the inconsistency problem of battery packs. However, these strategies only focus on a single objective, ignore the mutual interaction among various factors and are only based on the external performance of the battery pack inconsistency, such as voltage balancing and state of charge (SOC) balancing. To solve these problems, multi-objective predictive balancing control (MOPBC) based on predictive current is proposed in this paper, namely, in the driving process of an electric vehicle, using predictive control to predict the battery pack output current the next time. Based on this information, the impact of the battery pack temperature caused by the output current can be obtained. Then, the influence is added to the battery pack balancing control, which makes the present degradation, temperature, and SOC imbalance achieve balance automatically due to the change of the output current the next moment. According to MOPBC, the simulation model of the balancing circuit is built with four cells in Matlab/Simulink. The simulation results show that MOPBC is not only better than the other traditional balancing control strategies but also reduces the energy loss in the balancing process. Full article

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1827 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Smart Distribution Systems

by Yazhou Jiang, Chen-Ching Liu and Yin Xu

Energies 2016, 9(4), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040297 - 19 Apr 2016

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 10145

Abstract

The increasing importance of system reliability and resilience is changing the way distribution systems are planned and operated. To achieve a distribution system self-healing against power outages, emerging technologies and devices, such as remote-controlled switches (RCSs) and smart meters, are being deployed. The [...] Read more.

The increasing importance of system reliability and resilience is changing the way distribution systems are planned and operated. To achieve a distribution system self-healing against power outages, emerging technologies and devices, such as remote-controlled switches (RCSs) and smart meters, are being deployed. The higher level of automation is transforming traditional distribution systems into the smart distribution systems (SDSs) of the future. The availability of data and remote control capability in SDSs provides distribution operators with an opportunity to optimize system operation and control. In this paper, the development of SDSs and resulting benefits of enhanced system capabilities are discussed. A comprehensive survey is conducted on the state-of-the-art applications of RCSs and smart meters in SDSs. Specifically, a new method, called Temporal Causal Diagram (TCD), is used to incorporate outage notifications from smart meters for enhanced outage management. To fully utilize the fast operation of RCSs, the spanning tree search algorithm is used to develop service restoration strategies. Optimal placement of RCSs and the resulting enhancement of system reliability are discussed. Distribution system resilience with respect to extreme events is presented. Test cases are used to demonstrate the benefit of SDSs. Active management of distributed generators (DGs) is introduced. Future research in a smart distribution environment is proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Power Systems Research)

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5719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decomposition Analysis in Decoupling Transport Output from Carbon Emissions in Guangdong Province, China

by Yalan Zhao, Yaoqiu Kuang and Ningsheng Huang

Energies 2016, 9(4), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040295 - 19 Apr 2016

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5793

Abstract

With a continuously growing share of the world’s overall energy consumption, the transport sector has been acknowledged as one of the most important contributors to global carbon emissions. This paper applies a complete decomposition and decoupling analysis to investigate and quantitatively analyze the [...] Read more.

With a continuously growing share of the world’s overall energy consumption, the transport sector has been acknowledged as one of the most important contributors to global carbon emissions. This paper applies a complete decomposition and decoupling analysis to investigate and quantitatively analyze the main factors influencing the energy-related carbon emissions of the transport (TCE) sector during 1995–2012 in Guangdong, the richest and most populated province in China. Results showed that decoupling level between transport output and TCE was relatively low, especially when compared with year 1995, in which case it remained as expansive coupling. Optimization of tertiary industry structure was the main factor inhibiting TCE increase. However the rapid growth of GDP per capita and population was more powerful at boosting TCE, resulting in elasticity index rising directly. 2005 was a turning point when environmental friendly policies took action, after which decoupling state improved significantly, achieving weak decoupling when comparing adjacent years. By studying TCE and its components, we found that the National 5-Year Plan policy impacts TCE tremendously, which leads to a 5-year periodic pattern of fluctuations. This highlights policy as potentially the most important factor behind Guangdong’s decoupling effort, dwarfing the impact from energy and other inner-drivers. Full article

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1896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Can the Context Affect Policy Decision-Making: The Case of Climate Change Mitigation Policies in the Greek Building Sector

by Niki-Artemis Spyridaki, Anastasia Ioannou and Alexandros Flamos

Energies 2016, 9(4), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040294 - 18 Apr 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5951

Abstract

The influence of context dynamics in the course of the climate change mitigation policy instruments’ (PIs) deployment cycle, usually causes a need for policy adaptation mechanisms to ensure that policies can meet the sector needs efficiently and effectively. In this paper, we argue [...] Read more.

The influence of context dynamics in the course of the climate change mitigation policy instruments’ (PIs) deployment cycle, usually causes a need for policy adaptation mechanisms to ensure that policies can meet the sector needs efficiently and effectively. In this paper, we argue that important contextual factors are the ones that are perceived to have a great impact over policy effectiveness by key related actors. By examining more thoroughly those effects over PIs, as perceived by policy and market actors, useful feedback on observed policy adaptations can be highlighted. In this context, the aim of this paper is to present a conceptual framework which seeks to investigate the impact of key external factors on policy decision-making. This framework is then applied to policies intended to foster sustainability in the Greek building sector. Contextual parameters that are influential over the effectiveness of the national energy conservation measures are identified through a stakeholder survey. Cluster analysis is then employed for the elicitation of three distinct decision-making priorities’ scenarios. General macroeconomic trends, energy costs, characteristics of the building sector and socio-institutional factors are prioritized differently from various types of actors and induce certain types of PI changes. Distinguishing among the different types of PI change can help explain better under which contextual circumstances policy adaptations occur and provide guidance to other policy makers when found in similar decisional contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Policy and Climate Change 2016)

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3716 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of Biodiesel Blends and Di-Ethyl-Ether on the Cold Starting Performance of a Compression Ignition Engine

by Adrian Clenci, Rodica Niculescu, Amélie Danlos, Victor Iorga-Simăn and Alina Trică

Energies 2016, 9(4), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040284 - 18 Apr 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6799

Abstract

The use of biodiesel fuel in compression ignition engines has the potential to reduce CO₂, which can lead to a reduction in global warming and environmental hazards. Biodiesel is an attractive fuel, as it is made from renewable resources. Many studies [...] Read more.

The use of biodiesel fuel in compression ignition engines has the potential to reduce CO₂, which can lead to a reduction in global warming and environmental hazards. Biodiesel is an attractive fuel, as it is made from renewable resources. Many studies have been conducted to assess the impact of biodiesel use on engine performances. Most of them were carried out in positive temperature conditions. A major drawback associated with the use of biodiesel, however, is its poor cold flow properties, which have a direct influence on the cold starting performance of the engine. Since diesel engine behavior at negative temperatures is an important quality criterion of the engine’s operation, one goal of this paper is to assess the starting performance at −20 °C of a common automotive compression ignition engine, fueled with different blends of fossil diesel fuel and biodiesel. Results showed that increasing the biodiesel blend ratio generated a great deterioration in engine startability. Another goal of this study was to determine the biodiesel blend ratio limit at which the engine would not start at −20 °C and, subsequently, to investigate the impact of Di-Ethyl-Ether (DEE) injection into the intake duct on the engine’s startability, which was found to be recovered. Full article

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10477 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aerodynamic Analysis and Three-Dimensional Redesign of a Multi-Stage Axial Flow Compressor

by Tao Ning, Chun-Wei Gu, Wei-Dou Ni, Xiao-Tang Li and Tai-Qiu Liu

Energies 2016, 9(4), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040296 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 9192

Abstract

This paper describes the introduction of three-dimension (3-D) blade designs into a 5-stage axial compressor with multi-stage computational fluid dynamic (CFD) methods. Prior to a redesign, a validation study is conducted for the overall performance and flow details based on full-scale test data, [...] Read more.

This paper describes the introduction of three-dimension (3-D) blade designs into a 5-stage axial compressor with multi-stage computational fluid dynamic (CFD) methods. Prior to a redesign, a validation study is conducted for the overall performance and flow details based on full-scale test data, proving that the multi-stage CFD applied is a relatively reliable tool for the analysis of the follow-up redesign. Furthermore, at the near stall point, the aerodynamic analysis demonstrates that significant separation exists in the last stator, leading to the aerodynamic redesign, which is the focus of the last stator. Multi-stage CFD methods are applied throughout the three-dimensional redesign process for the last stator to explore their aerodynamic improvement potential. An unconventional asymmetric bow configuration incorporated with leading edge re-camber and re-solidity is employed to reduce the high loss region dominated by the mainstream. The final redesigned version produces a 13% increase in the stall margin while maintaining the efficiency at the design point. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Techniques of Control for Energy Optimization in Actuators, Motors and Power Generation Systems)

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6557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Droplet Size on Exergy Destruction in Flow of Concentrated Non-Newtonian Emulsions

by Rajinder Pal

Energies 2016, 9(4), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040293 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6297

Abstract

The influence of droplet size on exergy destruction rate in flow of highly concentrated oil-in-water emulsions was investigated experimentally in a cone and plate geometry. The oil concentration was fixed at 74.5% by volume. At this dispersed-phase (oil) concentration, two different droplet size [...] Read more.

The influence of droplet size on exergy destruction rate in flow of highly concentrated oil-in-water emulsions was investigated experimentally in a cone and plate geometry. The oil concentration was fixed at 74.5% by volume. At this dispersed-phase (oil) concentration, two different droplet size emulsions were prepared: fine and coarse emulsions. The fine and coarse emulsions were mixed in different proportions to vary the droplet size distribution. Although the dispersed and matrix phases of the emulsions were Newtonian in nature, the emulsions exhibited a non-Newtonian (shear-thinning) behavior due to the high droplet concentration. The shear stress—shear rate data of the emulsions could be described adequately by a power law model. At low shear rates, the exergy destruction rate per unit volume of emulsion exhibited a minimum at a fine emulsion proportion of 35%. The results from the cone and plate geometry were used to simulate exergy loss in pipeline flow of emulsions. The pumping of emulsions becomes more efficient thermodynamically upon mixing of fine and coarse emulsions provided that the flow regime is maintained to be laminar and that the Reynolds number is kept at a low to moderate value. In the turbulent regime, the exergy loss generally increases upon mixing the fine and coarse emulsions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems)

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5212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Simulation of the Thermal Runaway Behavior of Cylindrical Li-Ion Cells—Computing of Critical Parameters

by Andreas Melcher, Carlos Ziebert, Magnus Rohde and Hans Jürgen Seifert

Energies 2016, 9(4), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040292 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 11998

Abstract

The thermal behavior of Li-ion cells is an important safety issue and has to be known under varying thermal conditions. The main objective of this work is to gain a better understanding of the temperature increase within the cell considering different heat sources [...] Read more.

The thermal behavior of Li-ion cells is an important safety issue and has to be known under varying thermal conditions. The main objective of this work is to gain a better understanding of the temperature increase within the cell considering different heat sources under specified working conditions. With respect to the governing physical parameters, the major aim is to find out under which thermal conditions a so called Thermal Runaway occurs. Therefore, a mathematical electrochemical-thermal model based on the Newman model has been extended with a simple combustion model from reaction kinetics including various types of heat sources assumed to be based on an Arrhenius law. This model was realized in COMSOL Multiphysics modeling software. First simulations were performed for a cylindrical 18650 cell with a

L i C o O_{2}

-cathode to calculate the temperature increase under two simple electric load profiles and to compute critical system parameters. It has been found that the critical cell temperature

T_{crit}

, above which a thermal runaway may occur is approximately

400 K

, which is near the starting temperature of the decomposition of the Solid-Electrolyte-Interface in the anode at

393.15 K

. Furthermore, it has been found that a thermal runaway can be described in three main stages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Energy Storage - 2015)

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4603 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the System Design of a Solar Assisted Ground Heat Pump System Using Dynamic Simulation

by Min Gyung Yu, Yujin Nam, Youngdong Yu and Janghoo Seo

Energies 2016, 9(4), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040291 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7290

Abstract

Recently, the use of hybrid systems using multiple heat sources in buildings to ensure a stable energy supply and improve the system performance has gained attention. Among them, a heat pump system using both solar and ground heat was developed and various system [...] Read more.

Recently, the use of hybrid systems using multiple heat sources in buildings to ensure a stable energy supply and improve the system performance has gained attention. Among them, a heat pump system using both solar and ground heat was developed and various system configurations have been introduced. However, establishing a suitable design method for the solar-assisted ground heat pump (SAGHP) system including a thermal storage tank is complicated and there are few quantitative studies on the detailed system configurations. Therefore, this study developed three SAGHP system design methods considering the design factors focused on the thermal storage tank. Using dynamic energy simulation code (TRNSYS 17), individual performance analysis models were developed and long-term quantitative analysis was carried out to suggest optimum design and operation methods. As a result, it was found that SYSTEM 2 which is a hybrid system with heat storage tank for only a solar system showed the highest average heat source temperature of 14.81 °C, which is about 11 °C higher than minimum temperature in SYSTEM 3. Furthermore, the best coefficient of performance (COP) values of heat pump and system were 5.23 and 4.32 in SYSYEM 2, using high and stable solar heat from a thermal storage tank. Moreover, this paper considered five different geographical and climatic locations and the SAGHP system worked efficiently in having high solar radiation and cool climate zones and the system COP was 4.51 in the case of Winnipeg (Canada) where the highest heating demand is required. Full article

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4413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Robust Longitudinal Speed Control of Hybrid Electric Vehicles with a Two-Degree-of-Freedom Fuzzy Logic Controller

by Jau-Woei Perng and Yi-Horng Lai

Energies 2016, 9(4), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040290 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5991

Abstract

This paper proposes a new robust two-degree-of-freedom (DoF) design method for controlling the nonlinear longitudinal speed problem of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). First, the uncertain parameters of the HEV model are described by fuzzy α-cut representation, in which the interval uncertainty and [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a new robust two-degree-of-freedom (DoF) design method for controlling the nonlinear longitudinal speed problem of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). First, the uncertain parameters of the HEV model are described by fuzzy α-cut representation, in which the interval uncertainty and the possibility can be simultaneously indicated by the fuzzy membership function. For the fuzzy parametric uncertain system, the maximum uncertainty interval can be translated into the weighting matrix Q of the linear quadratic tracking problem to guarantee that the designed feedback controller is robust. Second, the fuzzy forward compensator is incorporated with a robust feedback controller to enhance the system tracking response. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed controller has higher tracking performance compared to the single-DoF self-tuning fuzzy logic controller or conventional optimal H_∞ controller. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Power Management for Hybrids and Vehicle Drivetrains)

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5608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Pressure Oxydesulphurisation of Coal Using KMnO₄—Effect of Coal Slurry Concentration, pH and Alkali

by Moinuddin Ghauri, Khurram Shahzad, Abrar Inayat, Zulfiqar Ali and Keith R. Cliffe

Energies 2016, 9(4), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040289 - 16 Apr 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5846

Abstract

A high pressure oxydesulphurisation technique was investigated to reduce sulphur content, especially at ambient temperature. Prince of Wales coal was chosen for this study. The focus of the study was on the reduction of both pyritic and organic sulphur. The effects of pressure, [...] Read more.

A high pressure oxydesulphurisation technique was investigated to reduce sulphur content, especially at ambient temperature. Prince of Wales coal was chosen for this study. The focus of the study was on the reduction of both pyritic and organic sulphur. The effects of pressure, coal slurry concentration, pH and KOH concentration in a fixed time interval on sulphur removal were studied with a series of experimental runs at ambient temperature. Heating value recovery was found to be increased with decreased pressure and with increased coal slurry concentration. It was found that sulphur removal was enhanced with an increase in pressure, with a more significant effect on the organic sulphur. With increase in the coal slurry concentration reduction, sulphur was found to be decreased. Full article

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7111 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A High-Performance Adaptive Incremental Conductance MPPT Algorithm for Photovoltaic Systems

by Chendi Li, Yuanrui Chen, Dongbao Zhou, Junfeng Liu and Jun Zeng

Energies 2016, 9(4), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040288 - 15 Apr 2016

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 11376

Abstract

The output characteristics of photovoltaic (PV) arrays vary with the change of environment, and maximum power point (MPP) tracking (MPPT) techniques are thus employed to extract the peak power from PV arrays. Based on the analysis of existing MPPT methods, a novel incremental [...] Read more.

The output characteristics of photovoltaic (PV) arrays vary with the change of environment, and maximum power point (MPP) tracking (MPPT) techniques are thus employed to extract the peak power from PV arrays. Based on the analysis of existing MPPT methods, a novel incremental conductance (INC) MPPT algorithm is proposed with an adaptive variable step size. The proposed algorithm automatically regulates the step size to track the MPP through a step size adjustment coefficient, and a user predefined constant is unnecessary for the convergence of the MPPT method, thus simplifying the design of the PV system. A tuning method of initial step sizes is also presented, which is derived from the approximate linear relationship between the open-circuit voltage and MPP voltage. Compared with the conventional INC method, the proposed method can achieve faster dynamic response and better steady state performance simultaneously under the conditions of extreme irradiance changes. A Matlab/Simulink model and a 5 kW PV system prototype controlled by a digital signal controller (TMS320F28035) were established. Simulations and experimental results further validate the effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

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629 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Load Concentration Factor Based Analytical Method for Optimal Placement of Multiple Distribution Generators for Loss Minimization and Voltage Profile Improvement

by Mohsin Shahzad, Ishtiaq Ahmad, Wolfgang Gawlik and Peter Palensky

Energies 2016, 9(4), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040287 - 14 Apr 2016

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6849

Abstract

This paper presents novel separate methods for finding optimal locations, sizes of multiple distributed generators (DGs) simultaneously and operational power factor in order to minimize power loss and improve the voltage profile in the distribution system. A load concentration factor (LCF) is introduced [...] Read more.

This paper presents novel separate methods for finding optimal locations, sizes of multiple distributed generators (DGs) simultaneously and operational power factor in order to minimize power loss and improve the voltage profile in the distribution system. A load concentration factor (LCF) is introduced to select the optimal location(s) for DG placement. Exact loss formula based analytical expressions are derived for calculating the optimal sizes of any number of DGs simultaneously. Since neither optimizing the location nor optimizing the size is done iteratively, like existing methods do, the simulation time is reduced considerably. The exhaustive method is used to find the operational power factor, and it is shown with the results that the losses are further reduced and voltage profile is improved by operating the DGs at operational power factor. Results for power loss reduction and voltage profile improvement in IEEE 37 and 119 node radial distribution systems are presented and compared with the the loss sensitivity factor (LSF) method, improved analytical (IA) and exhaustive load flow method (ELF). The comparison for operational power factor and other power factors is also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Distributed Renewable Generation)

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1578 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Method for Estimating Annual Energy Production Using Monte Carlo Wind Speed Simulation

by Birgir Hrafnkelsson, Gudmundur V. Oddsson and Runar Unnthorsson

Energies 2016, 9(4), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040286 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7138

Abstract

A novel Monte Carlo (MC) approach is proposed for the simulation of wind speed samples to assess the wind energy production potential of a site. The Monte Carlo approach is based on historical wind speed data and reserves the effect of autocorrelation and [...] Read more.

A novel Monte Carlo (MC) approach is proposed for the simulation of wind speed samples to assess the wind energy production potential of a site. The Monte Carlo approach is based on historical wind speed data and reserves the effect of autocorrelation and seasonality in wind speed observations. No distributional assumptions are made, and this approach is relatively simple in comparison to simulation methods that aim at including the autocorrelation and seasonal effects. Annual energy production (AEP) is simulated by transforming the simulated wind speed values via the power curve of the wind turbine at the site. The proposed Monte Carlo approach is generic and is applicable for all sites provided that a sufficient amount of wind speed data and information on the power curve are available. The simulated AEP values based on the Monte Carlo approach are compared to both actual AEP and to simulated AEP values based on a modified Weibull approach for wind speed simulation using data from the Burfell site in Iceland. The comparison reveals that the simulated AEP values based on the proposed Monte Carlo approach have a distribution that is in close agreement with actual AEP from two test wind turbines at the Burfell site, while the simulated AEP of the Weibull approach is such that the P50 and the scale are substantially lower and the P90 is higher. Thus, the Weibull approach yields AEP that is not in line with the actual variability in AEP, while the Monte Carlo approach gives a realistic estimate of the distribution of AEP. Full article

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5179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Design of an Axial-Flux Permanent-Magnet Motor for an Electric Vehicle Based on Driving Scenarios

by Yee Pien Yang and Guan Yu Shih

Energies 2016, 9(4), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040285 - 13 Apr 2016

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 15767

Abstract

This paper proposes a driving-scenario oriented optimal design of an axial-flux permanent-magnet (AFPM) motor for an electric vehicle. The target torque and speed (TN) curve is defined as three operation zones-constant torque, maximum direct current, and maximum voltage—based on the driving scenario. The [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a driving-scenario oriented optimal design of an axial-flux permanent-magnet (AFPM) motor for an electric vehicle. The target torque and speed (TN) curve is defined as three operation zones-constant torque, maximum direct current, and maximum voltage—based on the driving scenario. The AFPM motor is designed to minimize energy consumption based on the motor weight and the frequent operating points of a driving cycle. The final result shows that the electric vehicle driven by the proposed AFPM motor consumes about 15% less energy than motors designed using traditional methods. Full article

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2430 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Biomass Physical Properties on Top-Lit Updraft Gasification of Woodchips

by Arthur M. James R., Wenqiao Yuan and Michael D. Boyette

Energies 2016, 9(4), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040283 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 7814

Abstract

The performance of a top-lit updraft gasifier affected by biomass (pine wood) particle size, moisture content and compactness was studied in terms of the biochar yield, biomass burning rate, syngas composition and tar content. The highest biochar yield increase (from 12.2% to 21.8%) [...] Read more.

The performance of a top-lit updraft gasifier affected by biomass (pine wood) particle size, moisture content and compactness was studied in terms of the biochar yield, biomass burning rate, syngas composition and tar content. The highest biochar yield increase (from 12.2% to 21.8%) was achieved by varying the particle size from 7 to 30 mm, however, larger particles triggered tar generation that reached its maximum of 93.5 g/m³ syngas at 30-mm biomass particles; in contrast, the hydrogen content in syngas was at its minimum of 2.89% at this condition. The increase in moisture content from 10% to 22% reduced biochar yield from 12% to 9.9%. It also reduced the tar content from 12.9 to 6.2 g/m³ which was found to be the lowest range of tar content in this work. Similarly, the carbon monoxide composition in syngas decreased to its minimum of 11.16% at moisture content of 22%. Finally, the biomass compactness increased biochar yield up to 17% when the packing mass was 3 kg. However, the addition of compactness also increased the tar content in syngas, but little effect was noticed in syngas composition. Full article

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2170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Performance of the “Pendulor” Wave Energy Converter in an Array Configuration

by Sudath Prasanna Gunawardane, Chathura Jayan Kankanamge and Tomiji Watabe

Energies 2016, 9(4), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040282 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 9271

Abstract

For over three decades the “Pendulor” wave energy device has had a significant influence in this field, triggering several research endeavours. It includes a top-hinged flap propelled by the standing waves produced in a caisson with a back wall on the leeward side. [...] Read more.

For over three decades the “Pendulor” wave energy device has had a significant influence in this field, triggering several research endeavours. It includes a top-hinged flap propelled by the standing waves produced in a caisson with a back wall on the leeward side. However, one of the main disadvantages which impedes its progress is the enormous expense involved in the construction of the custom made typical caisson structure, about a little more than one-quarter of the wave length. In this study, the influence of such design parameters on the performance of the device is investigated, via numerical modelling for a device arranged in an array configuration, for irregular waves. The potential wave theory is applied to derive the frequency-dependent hydrodynamic parameters by making a distinction in the fluid domain into a separate sea side and lee side. The Cummins equation was utilised for the development of the time domain equation of motion while the transfer function estimation methods were used to solve the convolution integrals. Finally, the device was tested numerically for irregular wave conditions for a 50 kW class unit. It was observed that in irregular wave operating conditions, the caisson chamber length could be reduced by 40% of the value estimated for the regular waves. Besides, the device demonstrated around 80% capture efficiency for irregular waves thus allowing provision for avoiding the employment of any active control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Modelling of Wave and Tidal Energy)

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1196 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vibration Durability Testing of Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA) Lithium-Ion 18650 Battery Cells

by James Michael Hooper, James Marco, Gael Henri Chouchelamane, Christopher Lyness and James Taylor

Energies 2016, 9(4), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040281 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 8738

Abstract

This paper outlines a study undertaken to determine if the electrical performance of Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA) 3.1 Ah 18650 battery cells can be degraded by road induced vibration typical of an electric vehicle (EV) application. This study investigates if a particular [...] Read more.

This paper outlines a study undertaken to determine if the electrical performance of Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA) 3.1 Ah 18650 battery cells can be degraded by road induced vibration typical of an electric vehicle (EV) application. This study investigates if a particular cell orientation within the battery assembly can result in different levels of cell degradation. The 18650 cells were evaluated in accordance with Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J2380 standard. This vibration test is synthesized to represent 100,000 miles of North American customer operation at the 90th percentile. This study identified that both the electrical performance and the mechanical properties of the NCA lithium-ion cells were relatively unaffected when exposed to vibration energy that is commensurate with a typical vehicle life. Minor changes observed in the cell’s electrical characteristics were deemed not to be statistically significant and more likely attributable to laboratory conditions during cell testing and storage. The same conclusion was found, irrespective of cell orientation during the test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage Systems for Plug-in Electric Vehicles and Vehicle to Power Grid Integration)

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3141 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Fault Detection and Sensor Selection for Condition Monitoring of Wind Turbines

by Wenna Zhang and Xiandong Ma

Energies 2016, 9(4), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040280 - 12 Apr 2016

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6021

Abstract

Data collected from the supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system are used widely in wind farms to obtain operation and performance information about wind turbines. The paper presents a three-way model by means of parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) for wind turbine fault [...] Read more.

Data collected from the supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system are used widely in wind farms to obtain operation and performance information about wind turbines. The paper presents a three-way model by means of parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) for wind turbine fault detection and sensor selection, and evaluates the method with SCADA data obtained from an operational farm. The main characteristic of this new approach is that it can be used to simultaneously explore measurement sample profiles and sensors profiles to avoid discarding potentially relevant information for feature extraction. With K-means clustering method, the measurement data indicating normal, fault and alarm conditions of the wind turbines can be identified, and the sensor array can be optimised for effective condition monitoring. Full article

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9540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Guide Vane Clearance Gap on Francis Turbine Performance

by Ravi Koirala, Baoshan Zhu and Hari Prasad Neopane

Energies 2016, 9(4), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9040275 - 11 Apr 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 11647

Abstract

Francis turbine guide vanes have pivoted support with external control mechanism, for conversion of pressure to kinetic energy and to direct them to runner vanes. This movement along the support is dependent on variation of load and flow (operating conditions). Small clearance gaps [...] Read more.

Francis turbine guide vanes have pivoted support with external control mechanism, for conversion of pressure to kinetic energy and to direct them to runner vanes. This movement along the support is dependent on variation of load and flow (operating conditions). Small clearance gaps between facing plates and the upper and lower guide vane tips are available to aid this movement, through which leakage flow occurs. This secondary flow disturbs the main flow stream, resulting performance loss. Additionally, these increased horseshoe vortex, in presence of sand, when crosses through the gaps, both the surfaces are eroded. This causes further serious effect on performance and structural property by increasing gaps. This paper discusses the observation of the severity in hydropower plants and effect of clearance gaps on general performance of the Francis turbine through computational methods. It also relates the primary result with the empirical relation for leakage flow prediction. Additionally, a possible method to computationally estimate thickness depletion has also been presented. With increasing clearance gap, leakage increases, which lowers energy conversion and turbine efficiency along with larger secondary vortex. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 5th Asia-Pacific Forum on Renewable Energy)

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