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Article

The Use of Pre-Wetting to Improve the Mechanical Behavior of Masonry Mortar Elaborated with Crushed Oyster Shell

by
René Sebastián Mora-Ortiz
1,*,
Ebelia Del Angel-Meraz
1,
Sergio A. Díaz
1,
Emmanuel Munguía-Balvanera
1,
Francisco Magaña-Hernández
1,
Justino Alavez-Ramírez
2,
Mayra Agustina Pantoja Castro
1 and
Jazmín del Rosario Torres-Hernández
1
1
División Académica de Ingeniería y Arquitectura (DAIA), Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Carretera Cunduacán-Jalpa de Méndez km. 1, Cunduacán 86690, Tabasco, Mexico
2
División Académica de Ciencias Básicas (DACB), Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco (UJAT), Carretera Cunduacán-Jalpa de Méndez km. 1, Cunduacán 86690, Tabasco, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(1), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010199
Submission received: 23 October 2023 / Revised: 1 December 2023 / Accepted: 22 December 2023 / Published: 25 December 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Sustainable Manufacturing Management)
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Abstract

:
In this research, the use of the pre-wetting technique is proposed as an ecological alternative to reduce water absorption in waste oyster shells used in the production of masonry mortar as a partial substitute for natural sand. An experimental study was conducted to assess the properties in both the fresh and hardened states of masonry mortars. Two mortar groups were prepared based on a control mixture, with natural aggregate replaced by crushed oyster shell (COS) in varying proportions. In one group, the COS was pre-wetted, while in the other group, the COS was used at its natural moisture content. The experimental results demonstrated that the pre-wetting process aided in reducing the water–cement ratio (w/c) in the mortar mixture, thereby improving its properties. In both mortar groups, favorable results were observed with respect to capillary water absorption. Although the compressive strength was affected by the incorporation of COS, pre-wetted mortars with substitutions of up to 30% achieved the reference value established in this research. The pre-wetting process proves to be a straightforward and cost-effective technique; it is environmentally friendly and will contribute to decreasing the accumulation of COS in landfills, thereby safeguarding natural material reserves.

1. Introduction

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the global consumption of aquatic food (excluding algae) has steadily increased at an average annual rate of 3% since 1961, contrasting with a population growth rate of 1.6% [1]. In the coastal regions of Mexico, oysters are highly sought-after products in the tourism and commercial sectors, with annual production averaging around 55 thousand tons, of which nearly 80% is obtained through aquaculture [2]. A consequential byproduct of oyster consumption is the oyster shell, constituting over 90% of the oyster’s weight. The vast majority of these waste shells are neither recycled nor repurposed but are instead disposed of in government-designated sites or even illegal landfills. Since oyster shells (OSs) are insoluble in water and resistant to biodegradation, they accumulate excessively, posing environmental and public health hazards. One of the significant issues arising from OS accumulation in tropical countries pertains to the concave shape of the oyster shell which, when exposed to the environment, retains water, thereby fostering the proliferation of mosquitoes that carry dengue fever [3]. Consequently, the development of techniques to reuse this material and mitigate its accumulation has become a priority in various nations.
An important consideration for the recycling of OS is the safety of the material, as it does not contain hazardous substances [4,5]. Leaching tests conducted by Martínez-García et al. [6] concluded that these waste materials can be considered inert and are classified as non-hazardous according to European Union regulations. In fact, they are mostly composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and contain few impurities [7,8,9,10]. Several researchers have directed their efforts toward harnessing these waste materials in the construction industry, predominantly as a partial substitute for cement [11,12,13,14], alkaline activators [15,16,17,18], coarse aggregate [6,19,20,21], or fine aggregate in the production of concrete and mortar [9,22,23,24].
In recent times, investigations have explored the advantages of substituting natural sand (NS) with crushed oyster shell (COS) in mortar and concrete mixtures. This approach proves favorable due to COS exhibiting similar characteristics to sand, including apparent volume and specific gravity [7,24]. In concrete production, it has been observed that even at relatively low proportions, COS has a positive impact on mechanical properties [10,25]. Yang et al. [24] noted that the long-term compressive strength of concrete, where 10% of NS is substituted by COS, exhibits practically the same values as normal concrete. However, when the substitution exceeds 20%, the compressive strength significantly decreases relative to reference concrete. Generally, most research suggests that increasing the substitution percentage of NS with crushed sea shells in concrete mixtures affects properties such as elastic modulus, water permeability, workability, compressive strength, resistance to freezing and thawing, and drying shrinkage [10,26,27,28].
A more suitable avenue for recycling COS lies in its use in masonry mortar production, as it demands lower structural requirements than concrete. Encouraging research has been conducted in this context. Kuo et al. [29], for instance, demonstrated that substituting natural sand with COS, up to a maximum of 20%, reduces porosity and water permeability. Meanwhile, Safi et al. [23] concluded that this material can be used as a fine aggregate in self-compacting mortar without affecting the main characteristics of the mortar. Other researchers have reported that for low substitution levels, there is an increase in compressive strength, static elastic modulus, and higher early age compressive strength [24,27,30]. In contrast, a decrease in flowability, compressive and flexural strength, elastic modulus, and an increase in shrinkage have also been reported [10,22,25].
One of the primary challenges encountered when replacing NS with COS is the reduction in mix workability [9,24,29]. This decline is attributed to the irregular particle shape, increased specific surface area, and internal porosity of the OS, all of which substantially elevate the water requirement in the mix [10]. In response to this, some researchers have used superplasticizers in different proportions [6,24,31]. On the other hand, researchers such as Chen et al. [32] have reported that the properties of mortars prepared with COS can be enhanced through the addition of supplementary cementing materials (SCMs). Similarly, Liu et al. [33] conducted a comparative study using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium silicate (SS) separately as methods for pretreating crushed shell aggregate surfaces. In this investigation, both PVA and SS demonstrated a positive effect on the strength and durability performance of COS mortar compared to the control mortar.
An alternative approach to using superplasticizers and surface treatment methods is to pre-wet the aggregates before mixing. This environmentally friendly technique has proven successful in the recycling of construction and demolition waste (CDW). In this regard, González et al. [34] and Mefteh et al. [35] have reported that pre-wetting reduces the absorption potential of recycled aggregate (RA), resulting in a direct decrease in the water–cement ratio (w/c) and an associated improvement in the mechanical properties of concrete samples. Cabral et al. [36], Cuenca-Moyano et al. [37], Mora-Ortiz et al. [38], and Zao et al. [39] recommend pre-wetting recycled aggregate up to a maximum of 80% of its total absorption capacity (W24h). Some researchers have even suggested that with the use of pre-wetting, substitutions of NS by RA up to 30% can be achieved without significant reductions in mortar mechanical properties [40,41].
The objective of this research was to analyze the effects of pre-wetting COS, which partially replaces NS in the production of masonry mortar. To accomplish this, various properties such as densities, compressive strength, shear bond strength, and water absorption through capillary action were examined. The aim was to contribute to the recycling of OS and mitigate its excessive accumulation.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Oyster Shell

The oyster shells used in this investigation were collected from the Gulf of Mexico coast and belong to the species Crassostrea virginica (Figure 1A). These shells were collected before they could be discarded in landfills, thereby reducing contamination. The cleaning process comprised three phases: (1) immersing the shells in water for 48 h, (2) brushing and cleaning with water, and (3) drying in an oven at 135 °C for 24 h. This cleaning procedure effectively removed organic residues, salt, water content, chloride ions, and other impurities [9,42,43,44]. Researchers like Safi et al. [23] and Yang et al. [25] recommend using drying temperatures of at least 105 °C to ensure the safe handling of oyster shells. Subsequently, the oyster shells were crushed using a Los Angeles abrasion machine to achieve particle sizes smaller than 4.75 mm, resulting in a more rounded shape for the crushed oyster shell (COS) particles [22].

2.2. Characterization of the Materials

Figure 2 shows the particle size distribution of the aggregates used, determined in accordance with ASTM C-33 [45].
Table 1 presents the characteristics of the aggregates employed in the study. It can be observed that both NS and crushed oyster shell particles have similar densities. However, with respect to water absorption, crushed oyster shell exhibits a higher value than NS. This discrepancy is attributed to the irregular surface of the particles and their internal porosity [29].
Regarding chloride content, it is noted that COS has a slightly higher value than the limit specified in the standard. These results align with findings by various researchers concerning scallop and crepidula shells, oysters, mussels, and cockles [7,10,20,31]. This is one of the reasons why the recycling of seashell waste is restricted in concrete production. Liu et al. [49] concluded that steel reinforcement in concrete remains corrosion-free (under normal atmospheric conditions) if the chloride content in sea shell aggregates is less than 0.18%, or if the total chloride content in concrete is less than 0.34%. In this regard, the ACI 318-19 standard [50] establishes limit values for chloride content in concrete, categorized as concrete protected from moisture (<1%); concrete exposed to moisture, but isolated from chloride sources (<0.30%); and concrete exposed to moisture and external sources of chlorides (<0.15%). Yousri et al. [51] provide a summary of current criteria established by various researchers for maximum chloride content in concrete mixtures, ranging from 0.15% to 2.2% (relative to the total weight of cement).
Although masonry mortar does not have the same structural requirements as concrete, and it does not need reinforcing steel, it is necessary to evaluate the chloride content in its aggregates to ensure their durability and that of adjacent concrete elements. For the above, the criteria set forth by Liu et al. [49] and the ACI standards mentioned earlier can be applied to mortars. Under these criteria, the COS used in this study is suitable for the partial substitution of NS in masonry mortars.
X-ray diffraction patterns for the aggregates are presented in Figure 3. The main minerals identified in the natural sand were quartz and albite (a feldspar mineral, NaAlSi3O8), while for the oyster shell, the main minerals were magnesium carbonate, talc, and dolomite. Portland cement of type 30R from the CEMEX brand, with a specific gravity of 3.15 (g/cm3), was used. This cement complies with the standards of the NMX-C-414-ONNCCE [52] and ASTM C150 [53].

2.3. Pre-Wetting Method

The high water absorption potential of recycled aggregates (RAs) is one of the primary factors that hinder their use in mortar and concrete mixtures. This property leads to the migration of water from the cement paste to the RA, reducing workability and necessitating the addition of extra water to the mixture, thereby increasing the water–cement ratio (w/c) [30,54]. In this investigation, the pre-wetting technique was proposed to reduce the absorption potential of COS [34,35,37,55]. This technique was proposed by Fonseca et al. [55] and Cuenca-Moyano et al. [37] and involves mixing water and aggregate (in this case, crushed oyster shell) at a low speed (140 rpm) for five minutes. After mixing, the aggregate is allowed to soak for ten minutes and is then removed from the water and drained. This procedure moistens the crushed oyster shell up to 67% of its absorption capacity (WA24h), a percentage shown to reduce the water demand of recycled fine aggregates (RFAs) and enhance the mechanical behavior of mortars made with CDW [38,40].

2.4. Mixes

The dosing of the mortars analyzed in this investigation is presented in Table 2. A reference mixture was designed using only NS as fine aggregate. Based on this mixture, two groups of mortars were prepared with the substitution of NS by COS: one group used pre-moistened COS (COSw), while the other employed COS with its natural humidity (COSnh) (0.53 ± 0.2). This approach allowed for a comparison of the effects of the pre-wetting technique on the mechanical behavior of the mortars. The partial substitution of NS by COS was carried out in dry weight [56,57,58] in both mortar groups at percentages of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, and 60%. The consistency for all mixtures was 175 ± 4 mm (plastic consistency), as determined in accordance with ASTM C1437 [59]. For the mortars without the pre-wetting of COS, the amount of water was adjusted experimentally to achieve the established consistency.
The mixing procedure was consistent for all mixtures and encompassed the subsequent steps: (i) the aggregates and cement were dry-mixed in a standard mixer until a homogeneous blend was achieved (lasting three minutes); (ii) as the solid components were still being mixed at a low speed of 140 rpm, water was gradually introduced to the mixture over a span of 20 s; (iii) following the addition of water, mixing persisted for an additional three minutes at the same speed.

2.5. Rehearsal Program

The tests conducted on the mortars were concentrated on assessing their mechanical properties in both fresh and hardened states. Table 3 outlines the properties examined in the prepared mortars, along with their respective reference standards and curing conditions.
The preparation of all mixtures and the curing process took place in a chamber at a temperature of 23 °C ± 2 and a relative humidity of 50%. After 24 h of sample preparation, the specimens were removed from the molds. The specimens used to determine dry bulk density, compressive strength, and water absorption due to capillary action were subjected to water immersions until the testing day.
The procedure described in the Mexican standard NMX-C-082-ONNCCE [63] was employed to determine the shear bond strength. This standard stipulates that the test should be conducted with five specimens, each composed of four pieces of brick: two complete pieces measuring 50 × 100 × 200 mm and two half-bricks (50 × 100 × 100 mm). The specimens were manufactured in a horizontal position (Figure 4a), wherein the pieces assumed the position they would have in a wall, leaving a gap between the two halves of the brick. The mortar mixture used to bond the pieces was the one under analysis. The thickness of the mortar joints and the empty space was 10 ± 2 mm. After construction, the specimens remained stationary in a chamber at a temperature of 23 °C ± 2 and a relative humidity of 50% until the testing day. The specimens were placed in a vertical position for testing (Figure 4b). The load was applied with a load block with a spherical seat on the upper part of the protruding half of the brick. The loading rate was 0.5 mm/min. The shear bond strength was determined using the following equation:
σ a d = P S = P 2   d   t
where
σad is the shear bond strength (MPa);
P is the maximum load that the specimens can detach (kg);
S is the sum of the two separating surfaces (cm2);
t is the thickness of the blocks (cm) (Figure 4c);
d is the height of each mortar-covered surface that detaches (cm).
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Figure 4. Geometry of the specimens for the shear bond strength test: (a) position during construction; (b) position during testing; (c) brick thickness and height; (d) complete specimen.
Figure 4. Geometry of the specimens for the shear bond strength test: (a) position during construction; (b) position during testing; (c) brick thickness and height; (d) complete specimen.
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3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Fresh Mortar

3.1.1. Air Content

The variations in the air content and the water–cement (w/c) ratio of the studied mortars are shown in Figure 5. It can be observed that in both mortar groups, as the percentage of substitution of natural sand (NS) with crushed oyster shell (COS) increased, both the water–cement ratio (w/c) and the air content increased. These results align with the findings reported by Cuadrado-Rica et al. [26] and Eo and Yi [27], who used crushed scallop shells and crushed oyster shells as fine aggregate in fresh concrete mixes. This gradual increase in the air content was due to the elongated, flat, and sometimes concave shape of COS particles and their high porosity compared to natural sand. These factors lead to the entrapment of air bubbles in the mixture [6,65].
As shown in Figure 5, the primary benefit of pre-wetting is the reduction in the w/c ratio of the mixtures. Pre-wetting the aggregates prior to mixing reduces their water absorption capacity. Comparing the results in both mortar groups, it is evident that mortars with pre-wetted COS have lower air content compared to their counterparts without pre-wetting. Additionally, it should be noted that the changes in air content for mortars with pre-wetted COS did not vary considerably from the control mortar as long as the 30% substitution threshold was not exceeded.
Researchers like Cuenca-Moyano et al. [37,40] suggest an optimal range for air content values between 5% and 20% for mortars incorporating construction and demolition waste (CDW) as fine aggregate. Following this criterion, it was observed that in the group of mortars with pre-wetted COS, all of them fell within the optimal range, whereas in the group without pre-wetting, the mortars with 60% substitution (COSnh-60) did not meet the criteria.

3.1.2. Bulk Density

Figure 6 shows the densities of the fresh mortars and their corresponding water–cement ratio (w/c). It can be seen that in both types of mortars, as the percentage of substitution of NS with COS increased, the w/c ratio rose, and the density decreased. This was a result of COS particles having higher water absorption and slightly lower specific density compared to natural sand particles. These observations align with reports by Eo and Yi [27], Martínez-García et al. [6], and Ez-zaky et al. [12] in mortar and concrete samples made with mussel shells, marine sediments, and oyster shells. The results indicate that the reduction in density was lower in the mortars that used pre-wetted COS (COSw). This behavior occurred because pre-wetting reduces the water absorption potential of the oyster shell particles, resulting in reduced water transfer from the cement paste to the aggregate in COSw mortars, which requires less water to achieve the design consistency and generates lower w/c ratios compared to their counterparts without pre-wetting (COSnh) [37,40].
It can be observed that for COSw mortars, specimens with up to 30% substitution exhibited values close to the density of the control mortar. Conversely, in mortars without pre-wetting (COSnh), this percentage decreased to around 20%.
When comparing each type of mortar within the COSw and COSnh groups, it can be seen that the positive effect of pre-wetting became more pronounced, starting from the 30% substitution level. For example, COSnh-30 achieved 93.7% of the density of the control mortar, while COSw-30 reached 95%. For COSnh-60, it reached 86.1%, whereas COSw-60 reached 89.2%.

3.2. Hardened Mortar

3.2.1. Dry Bulk Density

Figure 7 shows the dry densities of the studied mortars and their corresponding w/c ratios. It was observed that, like the fresh state, in both types of mortars, as the percentage of substitution and the w/c ratio increased, the density decreased. This was due to the low specific gravity and high water absorption of the recycled aggregate (RA) particles [39,66,67]. The reduction in density with increasing COS content demonstrated the significant influence of these two parameters on mortar density. Safi et al. [23] demonstrated that using crushed seashell, which has a higher specific gravity and lower water absorption compared to NS, resulted in mortars with higher dry bulk density than the control mortar. Another factor contributing to the reduction in specimen density is the air trapped due to the shape of the COS particles [6,10].
A comparison of the mortars within each group revealed that those with pre-wetted COS exhibited higher densities than their counterparts without pre-wetting, confirming the trends shown by the bulk density in the fresh state. For instance, COSnh-30 achieved 95.3% of the dry density of the control mortar, while COSw-30 reached 96.3%. In the case of COSnh-60, it reached 83.8%, whereas COSw-60 reached 87.2%.

3.2.2. Compressive Strength

The compressive strength results and the w/c ratio of each mortar are shown in Figure 8, along with the minimum compressive strength requirement for a type M masonry mortar cement (ASTM C270) [68]. It was observed that, following the trend of properties in the fresh state, the compressive strength decreased as the percentage of NS substitution and the w/c ratio increased. This reduction is associated with three intrinsic characteristics of COS particles. The first is their shape, which, being elongated (flat or concave), increases the surface area (compared to NS particle area), resulting in less cement paste for adhesion [10]. The second characteristic is poor bonding between COS and the cement paste [25]. Yoon et al. [7], Martínez-García et al. [6], and Kuo et al. [29] concluded that the smooth areas on oyster shells make adhesion challenging. The third characteristic is porosity, which necessitates extra water to be added to the mixture to compensate for absorption, thereby increasing the w/c ratio [6,31].
As mentioned earlier, pre-wetting reduces the water absorption capacity of COS, which is why mortars with pre-wetted COS exhibit higher compressive strength than their counterparts without pre-wetting. In Figure 8, it can be seen that mortars with up to 30% substitution of NS with pre-wetted COS meet the minimum strength requirement. In contrast, for mortars without pre-wetting, only those with up to 20% substitution meet this criterion.

3.2.3. Shear Bond Strength

The shear bond strength results are shown in Figure 9. From these results, it can be observed that the shear bond strength decreased as the percentage of NS substitution with COS increased. This decrease is linked to the flat and elongated shape of the COS particles and their smooth texture. As previously mentioned, these characteristics lead to the accumulation of air bubbles beneath the aggregate and less cement paste (due to increased surface area), negatively impacting adhesion [10,25,29]. Martínez-García et al. [6] concluded that these same characteristics cause aggregates made from mussel shells to act as barriers to water blending, increasing the water content beneath the aggregate and significantly reducing the bond strength between the cement paste and the aggregate. Additionally, these authors noted that there is high porosity at the junction between these sea shells and the cement paste, further affecting adhesion.
In research on the bond strength of mortars with NS substitution by recycled aggregates (RA) from the construction industry, it was observed that the increase in the w/c ratio resulting from high RA absorption negatively affects the adhesion of the cement paste to the aggregate [69,70].
Figure 9 shows that although both types of mortars exhibited the same trend, mortars with pre-wetted COS had slightly higher shear bond strength. It was also observed that COSw mortars with up to 30% substitution showed shear bond strength values of approximately 92% of the value of the control mortar.

3.2.4. Water Absorption Due to Capillary Action of Hardened Mortar

The values of water absorption due to capillary action are presented in Figure 10. Contrary to the trend observed in the properties analyzed earlier, water absorption did not increase as the percentage of NS substitution with COS increases. Instead, in both types of mortar, it remained stable with a slight tendency to decrease, which became more evident for higher substitution percentages. This was due to the shape of the COS particles and their preferential orientation in the mortar matrix [6]: most COS particles adopt a horizontal orientation within the mortar samples, and being flat and elongated, they act as a barrier to water movement (Figure 11). Furthermore, the trapped water bubbles beneath them act as macropores that disrupt capillary action [65].
These results align with the observations of other researchers when using sea shells as aggregates. Yang et al. [25] reported that using COS as a partial substitute for NS in concrete mixes improved water permeability as the substitution percentage increased. Similarly, Martínez-García et al. [6] used mussel shells as partial substitutes for gravel and natural sand in concrete samples, demonstrating that water permeability decreased as the percentage of mussel shells increased. They found that the decrease in permeability was more pronounced with larger particle sizes. This conclusion was also reached by Richardson and Fuller [71].
Figure 10 shows that mortars without pre-wetted COS had the lowest water absorption as a result of the shape of the COS particles and the air trapped beneath them.

4. Conclusions

In this research, the utilization of pre-wetted crushed oyster shell (COS) was proposed as a strategy to enhance the mechanical behavior of masonry mortars by partially incorporating it as a fine aggregate. Two types of mixtures were prepared that incorporated COS, with one involving the pre-wetting of this aggregate up to 67% of its absorption capacity, and the other using it at its natural moisture content. The results of the laboratory tests on the mortars in both fresh and hardened states led to the following conclusions:
  • In both types of mixtures, the same trend was observed: the gradual incorporation of COS as a partial substitute for sand increased the w/c ratio, affecting the properties of the mortars in both fresh and hardened states. However, when comparing both types of mixtures, those in which COS was pre-wetted exhibited lower w/c ratios and, consequently, superior performance.
  • Pre-wetting reduced the absorption potential of COS, preventing the migration of water from the cement paste to the aggregate, thereby maintaining workability and avoiding the need to add extra water to the mix.
  • In mortars without pre-wetting, only those with up to 20% COS content met the compressive strength reference established in this research. In contrast, in mortars with COS pre-wetting, this percentage increased to 30%.
  • The capillary water absorption improved with the incorporation of COS due to the particle shape (elongated and flat), the pores beneath them, and their preferential horizontal orientation within the mortar mixtures, acting as barriers preventing a capillary water increase. However, these same characteristics, in combination with the low specific density and high water absorption of the COS particles, negatively affected properties such as air content, densities (in both fresh and hardened states), compressive strength, and shear bond strength.
  • Pre-wetting is an easy technique to execute, is cheap, does not require specialized equipment, and is environmentally friendly. This technique allows for the replacement of natural sand with COS up to 30% without significantly affecting the mortar properties. Therefore, its use in indoor applications such as plastering is feasible. However, comprehensive durability studies for outdoor applications are necessary.
The implementation of pre-wetting in the utilization of waste oyster shell (WOS) as an aggregate in mortar mixtures contributes to sustainable development. This technique allows for the recycling of a greater quantity of WOS, reduces the exploitation of non-renewable natural resources such as sand, and maximizes the utilization of waste from the growing oyster industry, thereby mitigating negative impacts on the environment. Pre-wetting is a strategy that extends the lifespan of waste, reduces its accumulation, promotes waste management, encourages the use of local materials, and drives the development of the sustainable construction industry.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.S.M.-O., E.D.A.-M. and S.A.D.; investigation, E.D.A.-M. and R.S.M.-O.; methodology, R.S.M.-O., E.D.A.-M., E.M.-B., J.A.-R. and F.M.-H.; writing—original draft preparation, R.S.M.-O. and E.M.-B.; writing—review and editing, R.S.M.-O. and S.A.D.; supervision, M.A.P.C., J.d.R.T.-H. and E.D.A.-M.; project administration, R.S.M.-O.; funding acquisition, R.S.M.-O., E.M.-B., E.D.A.-M. and F.M.-H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco (México) for its important support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. (A) Oyster shell (Crassostrea virginica); (B) crushed oyster shell.
Figure 1. (A) Oyster shell (Crassostrea virginica); (B) crushed oyster shell.
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Figure 2. Particle size distribution of natural sand (NS) and crushed oyster shell (COS).
Figure 2. Particle size distribution of natural sand (NS) and crushed oyster shell (COS).
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Figure 3. X-ray diffraction patterns.
Figure 3. X-ray diffraction patterns.
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Figure 5. Effect of adding COS on the air content value.
Figure 5. Effect of adding COS on the air content value.
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Figure 6. Bulk densities of the fresh mortar.
Figure 6. Bulk densities of the fresh mortar.
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Figure 7. Densities of hardened mortars.
Figure 7. Densities of hardened mortars.
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Figure 8. Influence of COS addition in compressive strength on mortars.
Figure 8. Influence of COS addition in compressive strength on mortars.
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Figure 9. Changes in shear bond strength of mortars due to COS addition.
Figure 9. Changes in shear bond strength of mortars due to COS addition.
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Figure 10. Influence of COS addition on water absorption due to capillary action on mortars.
Figure 10. Influence of COS addition on water absorption due to capillary action on mortars.
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Figure 11. Plan view of broken COS mortar specimen (COSw-30).
Figure 11. Plan view of broken COS mortar specimen (COSw-30).
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Table 1. Main characteristics of aggregates.
Table 1. Main characteristics of aggregates.
PropertyStandardLimit ValueNSCOS
Fine content (%)ASTM C136 [46]≤304.56.2
Specific gravity (gr/cm3)ASTM C128 [47]No limit2.652.58
Water absorption (%)ASTM C128 [47]No limit1.253.1
Soluble sulphates (% SO3)EN 1744-1 [48]≤0.8<0.01<0.01
Chlorides (% Cl)EN 1744-1 [48]≤0.060.0020.093
Table 2. Composition of mixtures.
Table 2. Composition of mixtures.
Mortar TypeAggregate TypeNS/COS (%)NS (g)COS (g)CEM (g)Pre-Wetting Water (g)Mixing Water (g)Total Water (g)Consistency Index (mm)W/C
ControlNatural sand100/02200065003803801750.585
COSnh-10COS without pre-wetting90/10198022065003803851740.592
COSnh-2080/20176044065003803921740.603
COSnh-3070/30154066065003803971760.611
COSnh-4060/40132088065003804041750.622
COSnh-5050/501100110065003804111740.632
COSnh-6040/60880132065003804181750.643
COSw-10COS with pre-wetting90/10198022065053803851760.592
COSw-2080/20176044065093803891730.599
COSw-3070/301540660650143803941720.606
COSw-4060/401320880650183803981710.613
COSw-5050/5011001100650233804031700.620
COSw-6040/608801320650273804071720.627
Table 3. Standards of reference utilized.
Table 3. Standards of reference utilized.
TestStandardSpecimens and DimensionsCuring Time (Days)
Fresh mortar
Entrained air mortarASTM C185 [60]3--
Bulk density of the freshASTM C185 [60]3--
Hardened mortar
Dry bulk densityASTM C642 [61]3 (50 × 50 × 50 mm)28
Compressive strengthASTM C109 [62]3 (50 × 50 × 50 mm)28
Shear bond strengthNMX-C-082-ONNCCE [63]5 (2 pieces of 50 × 100 × 200 mm
and 2 pieces of 50 × 100 × 100 mm)		28
Water absorption coefficient due to capillary actionEN 1015-18 [64]3 (40 × 40 × 80 mm)28
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Mora-Ortiz, R.S.; Del Angel-Meraz, E.; Díaz, S.A.; Munguía-Balvanera, E.; Magaña-Hernández, F.; Alavez-Ramírez, J.; Pantoja Castro, M.A.; Torres-Hernández, J.d.R. The Use of Pre-Wetting to Improve the Mechanical Behavior of Masonry Mortar Elaborated with Crushed Oyster Shell. Sustainability 2024, 16, 199. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010199

AMA Style

Mora-Ortiz RS, Del Angel-Meraz E, Díaz SA, Munguía-Balvanera E, Magaña-Hernández F, Alavez-Ramírez J, Pantoja Castro MA, Torres-Hernández JdR. The Use of Pre-Wetting to Improve the Mechanical Behavior of Masonry Mortar Elaborated with Crushed Oyster Shell. Sustainability. 2024; 16(1):199. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010199

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mora-Ortiz, René Sebastián, Ebelia Del Angel-Meraz, Sergio A. Díaz, Emmanuel Munguía-Balvanera, Francisco Magaña-Hernández, Justino Alavez-Ramírez, Mayra Agustina Pantoja Castro, and Jazmín del Rosario Torres-Hernández. 2024. "The Use of Pre-Wetting to Improve the Mechanical Behavior of Masonry Mortar Elaborated with Crushed Oyster Shell" Sustainability 16, no. 1: 199. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010199

APA Style

Mora-Ortiz, R. S., Del Angel-Meraz, E., Díaz, S. A., Munguía-Balvanera, E., Magaña-Hernández, F., Alavez-Ramírez, J., Pantoja Castro, M. A., & Torres-Hernández, J. d. R. (2024). The Use of Pre-Wetting to Improve the Mechanical Behavior of Masonry Mortar Elaborated with Crushed Oyster Shell. Sustainability, 16(1), 199. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010199

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