Polymers

12 pages, 2923 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Comparison of Alginate Mixtures as Wall Materials of Schizochytrium Oil Microcapsules Formed by Coaxial Electrospray

by Alejandra Arevalo-Gallegos, Sara P. Cuellar-Bermudez, Elda M. Melchor-Martinez, Hafiz M. N. Iqbal and Roberto Parra-Saldivar

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2756; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122756 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1714

Abstract

This work evaluated maltodextrin/alginate and β-glucan/alginate mixtures in the food industry as wall materials for the microencapsulation of Schizochytrium sp. oil, an important source of the omega-3 fatty acid DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). Results showed that both mixtures display a shear-thinning behavior, although the [...] Read more.

This work evaluated maltodextrin/alginate and β-glucan/alginate mixtures in the food industry as wall materials for the microencapsulation of Schizochytrium sp. oil, an important source of the omega-3 fatty acid DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). Results showed that both mixtures display a shear-thinning behavior, although the viscosity is higher in β-glucan/alginate mixtures than in maltodextrin/alginate. Scanning electron microscopy was used to assess the morphology of the microcapsules, which appeared more homogeneous for maltodextrin/alginate. In addition, oil-encapsulation efficiency was higher in maltodextrin/alginate mixtures (90%) than in β-glucan/alginate mixtures (80%). Finally, evaluating the microcapsules’ stability by FTIR when exposed to high temperature (80 °C) showed that maltodextrin/alginate microcapsules were not degraded contrary to the β-glucan/alginate microcapsules. Thus, although high oil-encapsulation efficiency was obtained with both mixtures, the microcapsules’ morphology and prolonged stability suggest that maltodextrin/alginate is a suitable wall material for microencapsulation of Schizochytrium sp. oil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials for Applications in the Food Industry)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

32 pages, 2784 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sustainable Elastomers for Actuators: “Green” Synthetic Approaches and Material Properties

by Olga V. Filippova, Aleksey V. Maksimkin, Tarek Dayyoub, Dmitry I. Larionov and Dmitry V. Telyshev

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2755; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122755 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2909

Abstract

Elastomeric materials have great application potential in actuator design and soft robot development. The most common elastomers used for these purposes are polyurethanes, silicones, and acrylic elastomers due to their outstanding physical, mechanical, and electrical properties. Currently, these types of polymers are produced [...] Read more.

Elastomeric materials have great application potential in actuator design and soft robot development. The most common elastomers used for these purposes are polyurethanes, silicones, and acrylic elastomers due to their outstanding physical, mechanical, and electrical properties. Currently, these types of polymers are produced by traditional synthetic methods, which may be harmful to the environment and hazardous to human health. The development of new synthetic routes using green chemistry principles is an important step to reduce the ecological footprint and create more sustainable biocompatible materials. Another promising trend is the synthesis of other types of elastomers from renewable bioresources, such as terpenes, lignin, chitin, various bio-oils, etc. The aim of this review is to address existing approaches to the synthesis of elastomers using “green” chemistry methods, compare the properties of sustainable elastomers with the properties of materials produced by traditional methods, and analyze the feasibility of said sustainable elastomers for the development of actuators. Finally, the advantages and challenges of existing “green” methods of elastomer synthesis will be summarized, along with an estimation of future development prospects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Green and Sustainable Chemistry)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cytotoxic Properties of Polyurethane Foams for Biomedical Applications as a Function of Isocyanate Index

by Dominik Grzęda, Grzegorz Węgrzyk, Adriana Nowak, Joanna Idaszek, Leonard Szczepkowski and Joanna Ryszkowska

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2754; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122754 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2004

Abstract

Polyurethane foams are widely used in biomedical applications due to their desirable mechanical properties and biocompatibility. However, the cytotoxicity of its raw materials can limit their use in certain applications. In this study, a group of open-cell polyurethane foams were investigated for their [...] Read more.

Polyurethane foams are widely used in biomedical applications due to their desirable mechanical properties and biocompatibility. However, the cytotoxicity of its raw materials can limit their use in certain applications. In this study, a group of open-cell polyurethane foams were investigated for their cytotoxic properties as a function of the isocyanate index, a critical parameter in the synthesis of polyurethanes. The foams were synthesized using a variety of isocyanate indices and characterized for their chemical structure and cytotoxicity. This study indicates that the isocyanate index highly influences the chemical structure of polyurethane foams, also causing changes in cytotoxicity. These findings have important implications for designing and using polyurethane foams as composite matrices in biomedical applications, as careful consideration of the isocyanate index is necessary to ensure biocompatibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Polymer Composites for Different Applications II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 6519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of SEBS Molecular Structure and Formula Composition on the Performance of SEBS/PP TPE for Automotive Interior Skin

by Shuwen Liu, Jun Qiu, Lili Han, Junping Luan, Xueyan Ma and Wenquan Chen

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2753; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122753 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3261

Abstract

The hydrogenated styrene–butadiene–styrene block copolymer (SEBS)/Polypropylene (PP)-blended thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) is an ideal material for automotive interior skin applications due to its excellent elasticity, weather resistance, and environmentally friendly characteristics such as low odor and low volatile organic compounds (VOC). As a thin-wall [...] Read more.

The hydrogenated styrene–butadiene–styrene block copolymer (SEBS)/Polypropylene (PP)-blended thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) is an ideal material for automotive interior skin applications due to its excellent elasticity, weather resistance, and environmentally friendly characteristics such as low odor and low volatile organic compounds (VOC). As a thin-wall injection-molded appearance skin product, it requires both high fluidity and good mechanical properties with scratch resistance. To optimize the performance of the SEBS/PP-blended TPE skin material, an orthogonal experiment and other methods were employed to investigate the impact of the formula composition and raw material characteristics, such as the styrene content and molecular structure of SEBS, on the TPE’s final performance. The outcomes revealed that the ratio of SEBS/PP had the most significant influence on the mechanical properties, fluidity, and wear resistance of the final products. The mechanical performance was enhanced by increasing the PP content within a certain range. The degree of sticky touch on the TPE surface was increased as the filling oil content increased, causing the increase in sticky wear and the decrease in abrasion resistance. When the SEBS ratio of high/low styrene content was 30/70, the TPE’s overall performance was excellent. The different proportions of linear/radial SEBS also had a significant effect on the final properties of the TPE. The TPE exhibited the best wear resistance and excellent mechanical properties when the ratio of linear-shaped/star-shaped SEBS was 70/30. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Polymers and Polymer Composites: Structure-Property Relationship)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 4886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Assembled CNF/rGO/Tannin Composite: Study of the Physicochemical and Wound Healing Properties

by Katherina Fernández, Aylen Llanquileo, Monserrat Bustos, Valentina Aedo, Isleidy Ruiz, Sebastián Carrasco, Mauricio Tapia, Miguel Pereira, Manuel F. Meléndrez, Claudio Aguayo and Leonard I. Atanase

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2752; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122752 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1829

Abstract

In this study, a conductive composite material, based on graphene oxide (GO), nanocellulose (CNF), and tannins (TA) from pine bark, reduced using polydopamine (PDA), was developed for wound dressing. The amount of CNF and TA was varied in the composite material, and a [...] Read more.

In this study, a conductive composite material, based on graphene oxide (GO), nanocellulose (CNF), and tannins (TA) from pine bark, reduced using polydopamine (PDA), was developed for wound dressing. The amount of CNF and TA was varied in the composite material, and a complete characterization including SEM, FTIR, XRD, XPS, and TGA was performed. Additionally, the conductivity, mechanical properties, cytotoxicity, and in vitro wound healing of the materials were evaluated. A successful physical interaction between CNF, TA, and GO was achieved. Increasing CNF amount in the composite reduced the thermal properties, surface charge, and conductivity, but its strength, cytotoxicity, and wound healing performance were improved. The TA incorporation slightly reduced the cell viability and migration, which may be associated with the doses used and the extract’s chemical composition. However, the in-vitro-obtained results demonstrated that these composite materials can be suitable for wound healing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Technology for Nanomedicine and Wound Healing)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 5905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Weathering on the Degradation of Cellulose Acetate Microplastics Obtained from Used Cigarette Butts

by Branka Mušič, Anita Jemec Kokalj and Andrijana Sever Škapin

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2751; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122751 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2574

Abstract

Cellulose acetate is used in many applications, including for cigarette filters. Unfortunately, unlike cellulose, its (bio)degradability is under question, yet it often ends up uncontrolled in the natural environment. The main purpose of this study is to compare the effects of weathering on [...] Read more.

Cellulose acetate is used in many applications, including for cigarette filters. Unfortunately, unlike cellulose, its (bio)degradability is under question, yet it often ends up uncontrolled in the natural environment. The main purpose of this study is to compare the effects of weathering on two types of cigarette filter (classic filters and newer filters that have more recently arrived on the market) following their use and disposal in nature. Microplastics were prepared from polymer parts of used (classic and heated tobacco products—HTP) cigarettes and artificially aged. TG/DTA, FTIR, and SEM analyses were performed both before and after the aging process. Newer tobacco products contain an additional film made of a poly(lactic acid) polymer which, like cellulose acetate, burdens the environment and poses a risk to the ecosystem. Numerous studies have been conducted on the disposal and recycling of cigarette butts and cigarette butt extracts, revealing alarming data that have also influenced the decisions of the EU, who addressed the disposal of tobacco products in the EU Directive (EU) 2019/904. Despite this, there is still no systematic analysis in the literature evaluating the impact of weathering (i.e., accelerated aging) on the degradation of cellulose acetate in classic cigarettes compared with that in newer tobacco products that have recently appeared on the market. This is of particular interest given that the latter have been promoted as being healthier and environmentally friendly. The results show that in cellulose acetate cigarette filters the particle size decreased after accelerated aging. Also, the thermal analysis revealed differences in the behavior of the aged samples, while the FTIR spectra showed no shifts in the position of the peaks. Organic substances break down under UV light, which can be seen by measuring the color change. The PLA film was found to be more stable than cellulose acetate under the influence of UV light. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sustainable Polymer/Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2781 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dopant-Free Hole-Transporting Material Based on Poly(2,7-(9,9-bis(N,N-di-p-methoxylphenylamine)-4-phenyl))-fluorene for High-Performance Air-Processed Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells

by Baomin Zhao, Meng Tian, Xingsheng Chu, Peng Xu, Jie Yao, Pingping Hou, Zhaoning Li and Hongyan Huang

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2750; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122750 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2050

Abstract

It is a great challenge to develop low-cost and dopant-free polymer hole-transporting materials (HTM) for PSCs, especially for efficient air-processed inverted (p-i-n) planar PSCs. A new homopolymer HTM, poly(2,7-(9,9-bis(N,N-di-p-methoxylphenyl amine)-4-phenyl))-fluorene (denoted as PFTPA), with appropriate photo-electrochemical, opto-electronic and thermal stability, was designed and [...] Read more.

It is a great challenge to develop low-cost and dopant-free polymer hole-transporting materials (HTM) for PSCs, especially for efficient air-processed inverted (p-i-n) planar PSCs. A new homopolymer HTM, poly(2,7-(9,9-bis(N,N-di-p-methoxylphenyl amine)-4-phenyl))-fluorene (denoted as PFTPA), with appropriate photo-electrochemical, opto-electronic and thermal stability, was designed and synthesized in two steps to meet this challenge. By employing PFTPA as dopant-free hole-transport layer in air-processed inverted PSCs, a champion power conversion efficiency (PCE) of up to 16.82% (0.1 cm²) was achieved, much superior to that of commercial HTM PEDOT:PSS (13.8%) under the same conditions. Such a superiority is attributed to the well-aligned energy levels, improved morphology, and efficient hole-transporting, as well as hole-extraction characteristics at the perovskite/HTM interface. In particular, these PFTPA-based PSCs fabricated in the air atmosphere maintain a long-term stability of 91% under ambient air conditions for 1000 h. Finally, PFTPA as the dopant-free HTM was also fabricated the slot-die coated perovskite device through the same fabrication condition, and a maximum PCE of 13.84% was obtained. Our study demonstrated that the low-cost and facile homopolymer PFTPA as the dopant-free HTM are potential candidates for large-scale production perovskite solar cell. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composite Materials: Processing, Modeling, Properties and Applications II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

34 pages, 11633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Designing Composite Adaptive Propeller Blades with Passive Bend–Twist Deformation for Periodic-Load Variations Using Multiple Design Concepts

by Sondre Østli Rokvam, Nils Petter Vedvik, Luca Savio and Andreas Echtermeyer

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2749; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122749 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1895

Abstract

Four plausible design concepts are applied together to investigate composite bend–twist propeller-blade designs that show high twisting per bending deflection. The design concepts are first explained on a simplified blade structure with limited unique geometric features to determine generalized principles for applying the [...] Read more.

Four plausible design concepts are applied together to investigate composite bend–twist propeller-blade designs that show high twisting per bending deflection. The design concepts are first explained on a simplified blade structure with limited unique geometric features to determine generalized principles for applying the considered design concepts. Then, the design concepts are applied to another propeller-blade geometry to obtain a bend–twist propeller-blade design that achieves a specific pitch change under an operational loading condition with a significant periodic-load variation. The final composite propeller design shows several times more bend–twist efficiency than other published bend–twist designs and shows a desirable pitch change during the periodic-load variation when loaded with a one-way fluid–structure-interaction-derived load case. The high pitch change suggests that the design would mitigate undesirable blade effects caused by load variations on the propeller during operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 6457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Facile Synthesis Hyper-Crosslinked PdFe Bimetallic Polymer as Highly Active Catalyst for Ullmann Coupling Reaction of Chlorobenzene

by Cheng Tang, Wenwen Yang, Zhijuan Zou, Fang Liao, Chunmei Zeng and Kunpeng Song

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2748; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122748 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1569

Abstract

The synthesis of efficient and sustainable heterogeneous Pd-based catalysts has been an active field of research due to their crucial role in carbon–carbon coupling reactions. In this study, we developed a facile and eco-friendly in situ assembly technique to produce a PdFe bimetallic [...] Read more.

The synthesis of efficient and sustainable heterogeneous Pd-based catalysts has been an active field of research due to their crucial role in carbon–carbon coupling reactions. In this study, we developed a facile and eco-friendly in situ assembly technique to produce a PdFe bimetallic hyper-crosslinked polymer (HCP@Pd/Fe) to use as a highly active and durable catalyst in the Ullmann reaction. The HCP@Pd/Fe catalyst exhibits a hierarchical pore structure, high specific surface area, and uniform distribution of active sites, which promote catalytic activity and stability. Under mild conditions, the HCP@Pd/Fe catalyst is capable of efficiently catalyzing the Ullmann reaction of aryl chlorides in aqueous media. The exceptional catalytic performance of HCP@Pd/Fe is attributed to its robust absorption capability, high dispersion, and strong interaction between Fe and Pd, as confirmed by various material characterizations and control experiments. Furthermore, the coated structure of a hyper-crosslinked polymer enables easy recycling and reuse of the catalyst for at least 10 cycles without any significant loss of activity. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Effects and Mechanistic Insights into the Co-Hydropyrolysis of Chilean Oak and Polyethylene: Unlocking the Potential of Biomass–Plastic Valorisation

by Bastián Puentes, Fidel Vallejo and Serguei Alejandro-Martín

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2747; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122747 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1983

Abstract

This study employed a hydrogen atmosphere in an analytical reactor to investigate the thermochemical transformation of Chilean Oak (ChO) and polyethylene. Thermogravimetric assays and compositional analyses of the evolved gaseous chemicals provided valuable insights regarding the synergistic effects during the co-hydropyrolysis of biomass [...] Read more.

This study employed a hydrogen atmosphere in an analytical reactor to investigate the thermochemical transformation of Chilean Oak (ChO) and polyethylene. Thermogravimetric assays and compositional analyses of the evolved gaseous chemicals provided valuable insights regarding the synergistic effects during the co-hydropyrolysis of biomass and plastics. A systematic experimental design approach assessed the contributions of different variables, revealing the significant influence of the biomass/plastic ratio and hydrogen pressure. Analysis of the gas phase composition showed that co-hydropyrolysis with LDPE resulted in lower levels of alcohols, ketones, phenols, and oxygenated compounds. ChO exhibited an average oxygenated compound content of 70.13%, while LDPE and HDPE had 5.9% and 1.4%, respectively. Experimental assays under specific conditions reduced ketones and phenols to 2–3%. Including a hydrogen atmosphere during co-hydropyrolysis contributes to enhanced reaction kinetics and reduced formation of oxygenated compounds, indicating its beneficial role in improving reactions and diminishing the production of undesired by-products. Synergistic effects were observed, with reductions of up to 350% for HDPE and 200% for LDPE compared to the expected values, achieving higher synergistic coefficients with HDPE. The proposed reaction mechanism provides a comprehensive understanding of the simultaneous decomposition of biomass and polyethylene polymer chains, forming valuable bio-oil products and demonstrating the how the hydrogen atmosphere modulates and influences the reaction pathways and product distribution. For this reason, the co-hydropyrolysis of biomass–plastic blends is a technique with great potential to achieve lower levels of oxygenated compounds, which should be further explored in subsequent studies to address scalability and efficiency at pilot and industrial levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Progress in Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass and Waste Polymers: Innovations and Opportunities)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

30 pages, 10858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Fatigue Life Model for Rubber Materials Based on Fracture Mechanics

by Xingwen Qiu, Haishan Yin, Qicheng Xing and Qi Jin

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2746; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122746 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2700

Abstract

In this paper, the research on the fatigue damage mechanism of tire rubber materials is the core, from designing fatigue experimental methods and building a visual fatigue analysis and testing platform with variable temperature to fatigue experimental research and theoretical modeling. Finally, the [...] Read more.

In this paper, the research on the fatigue damage mechanism of tire rubber materials is the core, from designing fatigue experimental methods and building a visual fatigue analysis and testing platform with variable temperature to fatigue experimental research and theoretical modeling. Finally, the fatigue life of tire rubber materials is accurately predicted by using numerical simulation technology, forming a relatively complete set of rubber fatigue evaluation means. The main research is as follows: (1) Mullins effect experiment and tensile speed experiment are carried out to explore the standard of the static tensile test, and the tensile speed of 50 mm/min is determined as the speed standard of plane tensile, and the appearance of 1 mm visible crack is regarded as the standard of fatigue failure. (2) The crack propagation experiments were carried out on rubber specimens, and the crack propagation equations under different conditions were constructed, and the relationship between temperature and tearing energy was found out from the perspective of functional relations and images, and the analytical relationship between fatigue life and temperature and tearing energy was established. Thomas model and thermo-mechanical coupling model were used to predict the life of plane tensile specimens at 50 °C, and the predicted results were 8.315 × 10⁵ and 6.588 × 10⁵, respectively, and the experimental results were 6.42 × 10⁵, with errors of 29.5% and 2.6%, thus verifying the accuracy of thermo-mechanical coupling model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Polymer Composites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Removal, Adsorption, and Cleaning of Pharmaceutical on Polyamide RO and NF Membranes

by Davor Dolar, Iva Ćurić and Danijela Ašperger

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2745; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122745 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1457

Abstract

Pharmaceuticals are present in various waters and can be almost completely rejected by membrane separation processes, i.e., nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO). Nevertheless, the adsorption of pharmaceuticals can decrease their rejection, so adsorption can be considered a very important removal mechanism. In [...] Read more.

Pharmaceuticals are present in various waters and can be almost completely rejected by membrane separation processes, i.e., nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO). Nevertheless, the adsorption of pharmaceuticals can decrease their rejection, so adsorption can be considered a very important removal mechanism. In order to increase the lifetime of the membranes, the adsorbed pharmaceuticals must be cleaned from the membrane. The used pharmaceutical (albendazole), the most common anthelmintic for threatening worms, has been shown to adsorb to the membrane (solute-membrane adsorption). In this paper, which is a novelty, commercially available cleaning reagents, NaOH/EDTA solution, and methanol (20%, 50%, and ≥99.6%) were used for pharmaceutical cleaning (desorption) of the NF/RO membranes used. The effectiveness of the cleaning was verified by Fourier-transform infrared spectra of the membranes. Of all the chemical cleaning reagents used, pure methanol was the only cleaning reagent that removed albendazole from the membranes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Polymer Applications in Environmental Science)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 4384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Biphasic Hydrogel with Self-Healing Properties and a Continuous Layer Structure for Potential Application in Osteochondral Defect Repair

by Yue Jiang, Shanzhu Guo, Jingjing Jiao and Long Li

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2744; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122744 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1687

Abstract

The treatment of osteochondral defects remains challenging due to the limited healing capacity of cartilage and the poor results of traditional methods. Inspired by the structure of natural articular cartilage, we have fabricated a biphasic osteochondral hydrogel scaffold using a Schiff base reaction [...] Read more.

The treatment of osteochondral defects remains challenging due to the limited healing capacity of cartilage and the poor results of traditional methods. Inspired by the structure of natural articular cartilage, we have fabricated a biphasic osteochondral hydrogel scaffold using a Schiff base reaction and a free radical polymerization reaction. Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS), oxidized sodium alginate (OSA), and polyacrylamide (PAM) formed a hydrogel (COP) as the cartilage layer, while hydroxyapatite (HAp) was incorporated into the COP hydrogel to obtain a hydrogel (COPH) as an subchondral bone layer. At the same time, hydroxyapatite (HAp) was incorporated into the COP hydrogel to obtain a hydrogel (COPH) as an osteochondral sublayer, combining the two to obtain an integrated scaffold for osteochondral tissue engineering. Interlayer interpenetration through the continuity of the hydrogel substrate and good self-healing properties due to the dynamic imine bonding of the hydrogel resulted in enhanced interlayer bond strength. In addition, in vitro experiments have shown that the hydrogel exhibits good biocompatibility. It shows great potential for osteochondral tissue engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Hydrogels with Shape Deformation Behaviors)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 9743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Incorporation of Argan Shell Flour in a Biobased Polypropylene Matrix for the Development of High Environmentally Friendly Composites by Injection Molding

by María Jordà-Reolid, Virginia Moreno, Asunción Martínez-Garcia, José A. Covas, Jaume Gomez-Caturla, Juan Ivorra-Martinez and Luis Quiles-Carrillo

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2743; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122743 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1786

Abstract

In this study, a new composite material is developed using a semi bio-based polypropylene (bioPP) and micronized argan shell (MAS) byproducts. To improve the interaction between the filler and the polymer matrix, a compatibilizer, PP-g-MA, is used. The samples are prepared using a [...] Read more.

In this study, a new composite material is developed using a semi bio-based polypropylene (bioPP) and micronized argan shell (MAS) byproducts. To improve the interaction between the filler and the polymer matrix, a compatibilizer, PP-g-MA, is used. The samples are prepared using a co-rotating twin extruder followed by an injection molding process. The addition of the MAS filler improves the mechanical properties of the bioPP, as evidenced by an increase in tensile strength from 18.2 MPa to 20.8 MPa. The reinforcement is also observed in the thermomechanical properties, with an increased storage modulus. The thermal characterization and X-ray diffraction indicate that the addition of the filler leads to the formation of α structure crystals in the polymer matrix. However, the addition of a lignocellulosic filler also leads to an increased affinity for water. As a result, the water uptake of the composites increases, although it remains relatively low even after 14 weeks. The water contact angle is also reduced. The color of the composites changes to a color similar to wood. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of using MAS byproducts to improve their mechanical properties. However, the increased affinity with water should be taken into account in potential applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sustainable Plastics)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

22 pages, 3370 KiB

Open AccessReview

Overview of Solar Steam Devices from Materials and Structures

by Chang Liu, Zhenhao Yin, Yue Hou, Chengri Yin and Zhenxing Yin

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2742; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122742 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3250

Abstract

The global shortage of freshwater supply has become an imminent problem. The high energy consumption of traditional desalination technology cannot meet the demand for sustainable energy development. Therefore, exploring new energy sources to obtain pure water has become one of the effective ways [...] Read more.

The global shortage of freshwater supply has become an imminent problem. The high energy consumption of traditional desalination technology cannot meet the demand for sustainable energy development. Therefore, exploring new energy sources to obtain pure water has become one of the effective ways to solve the freshwater resource crisis. In recent years, solar steam technology which utilizes solar energy as the sole input source for photothermal conversion has shown to be sustainable, low-cost, and environmentally friendly, providing a viable low-carbon solution for freshwater supply. This review summarizes the latest developments in solar steam generators. The working principle of steam technology and the types of heating systems are described. The photothermal conversion mechanisms of different materials are illustrated. Emphasis is placed on describing strategies to optimize light absorption and improve steam efficiency from material properties to structural design. Finally, challenges in the development of solar steam devices are pointed out, aiming to provide new ideas for the development of solar steam devices and alleviate the shortage of freshwater resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Environmentally Friendly Polymeric Materials and Their Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 5051 KiB

Open AccessReview

Valorization of Biomass-Derived Polymers to Functional Biochar Materials for Supercapacitor Applications via Pyrolysis: Advances and Perspectives

by Caiyun Yang, Hao Wu, Mengyu Cai, Yuting Zhou, Chunyu Guo, Ying Han and Lu Zhang

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2741; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122741 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 3080

Abstract

Polymers from biomass waste including plant/forest waste, biological industrial process waste, municipal solid waste, algae, and livestock are potential sources for renewable and sustainable resources. Converting biomass-derived polymers to functional biochar materials via pyrolysis is a mature and promising approach as these products [...] Read more.

Polymers from biomass waste including plant/forest waste, biological industrial process waste, municipal solid waste, algae, and livestock are potential sources for renewable and sustainable resources. Converting biomass-derived polymers to functional biochar materials via pyrolysis is a mature and promising approach as these products can be widely utilized in many areas such as carbon sequestration, power production, environmental remediation, and energy storage. With abundant sources, low cost, and special features, the biochar derived from biological polymeric substances exhibits great potential to be an alternative electrode material of high-performance supercapacitors. To extend this scope of application, synthesis of high-quality biochar will be a key issue. This work systematically reviews the char formation mechanisms and technologies from polymeric substances in biomass waste and introduces energy storage mechanisms of supercapacitors to provide overall insight into the biological polymer-based char material for electrochemical energy storage. Aiming to enhance the capacitance of biochar-derived supercapacitor, recent progress in biochar modification approaches including surface activation, doping, and recombination is also summarized. This review can provide guidance for valorizing biomass waste to functional biochar materials for supercapacitor to meet future needs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Environmentally Friendly Polymeric Materials and Their Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 5124 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Stage Microporous Layers with Gradient Pore Size Structure for Improving the Performance of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

by Chongxue Zhao, Haihang Zhang, Zheng Huang, Meng Zhao, Haiming Chen and Guangyi Lin

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2740; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122740 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2217

Abstract

In this paper, we report the preparation of a gas diffusion layer (GDL) with different gradient pore size structures. The pore structure of microporous layers (MPL) was controlled by the amount of pore-making agent sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃). We investigated the effects [...] Read more.

In this paper, we report the preparation of a gas diffusion layer (GDL) with different gradient pore size structures. The pore structure of microporous layers (MPL) was controlled by the amount of pore-making agent sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃). We investigated the effects of the two-stage MPL and the different pore size structures in the two-stage MPL on the performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). The conductivity and water contact angle tests showed that the GDL had outstanding conductivity and good hydrophobicity. The results of the pore size distribution test indicated that introducing a pore-making agent altered the pore size distribution of the GDL and increased the capillary pressure difference within the GDL. Specifically, there was an increase in pore size within the 7–20 μm and 20–50 μm ranges, which improved the stability of water and gas transmission within the fuel cell. The maximum power density of the GDL03 was increased by 37.1% at 40% humidity, 38.9% at 60% humidity, and 36.5% at 100% humidity when compared to the commercial GDL29BC in a hydrogen-air environment. The design of gradient MPL ensured that the pore size between carbon paper and MPL changed from an initially abrupt state to a smooth transition state, which significantly improved the water and gas management capabilities of PEMFC. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 5538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Linear Actuators Based on Polyvinyl Alcohol Hydrogels Activated by AC Voltage

by Tarek Dayyoub, Aleksey Maksimkin, Dmitry I. Larionov, Olga V. Filippova, Dmitry V. Telyshev and Alexander Yu. Gerasimenko

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2739; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122739 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1741

Abstract

Currently, the preparation of actuators based on ionic electroactive polymers with a fast response is considered an urgent topic. In this article, a new approach to activate polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hydrogels by applying an AC voltage is proposed. The suggested approach involves an [...] Read more.

Currently, the preparation of actuators based on ionic electroactive polymers with a fast response is considered an urgent topic. In this article, a new approach to activate polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hydrogels by applying an AC voltage is proposed. The suggested approach involves an activation mechanism in which the PVA hydrogel-based actuators undergo extension/contraction (swelling/shrinking) cycles due to the local vibration of the ions. The vibration does not cause movement towards the electrodes but results in hydrogel heating, transforming the water molecules into a gaseous state and causing the actuator to swell. Two types of linear actuators based on PVA hydrogels were prepared, using two types of reinforcement for the elastomeric shell (spiral weave and fabric woven braided mesh). The extension/contraction of the actuators, activation time, and efficiency were studied, considering the PVA content, applied voltage, frequency, and load. It was found that the overall extension of the spiral weave-reinforced actuators under a load of ~20 kPa can reach more than 60%, with an activation time of ~3 s by applying an AC voltage of 200 V and a frequency of 500 Hz. Conversely, the overall contraction of the actuators reinforced by fabric woven braided mesh under the same conditions can reach more than 20%, with an activation time of ~3 s. Moreover, the activation force (swelling load) of the PVA hydrogels can reach up to 297 kPa. The developed actuators have broad applications in medicine, soft robotics, the aerospace industry, and artificial muscles. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

10 pages, 2730 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Control of Bandgaps and Energy Levels in Water-Soluble Discontinuously Conjugated Polymers through Chemical Modification

by Hao-Xuan Guo, Riho Higashida and Hiroyuki Aota

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2738; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122738 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1227

Abstract

Bandgap and energy levels are crucial for developing new electronic and photonic devices because photoabsorption is highly dependent on the bandgap. Moreover, the transfer of electrons and holes between different materials depends on their respective bandgaps and energy levels. In this study, we [...] Read more.

Bandgap and energy levels are crucial for developing new electronic and photonic devices because photoabsorption is highly dependent on the bandgap. Moreover, the transfer of electrons and holes between different materials depends on their respective bandgaps and energy levels. In this study, we demonstrate the preparation of a series of water-soluble discontinuously π-conjugated polymers through the addition–condensation polymerization of pyrrole (Pyr), 1,2,3-trihydroxybenzene (THB) or 2,6-dihydroxytoluene (DHT), and aldehydes, including benzaldehyde-2-sulfonic acid sodium salt (BS) and 2,4,6-trihydroxybenzaldehyde (THBA). To control the energy levels of the polymers, varying amounts of phenols (THB or DHT) were introduced to alter the electronic properties of the polymer structure. The introduction of THB or DHT into the main chain results in discontinuous conjugation and enables the control of both the energy level and bandgap. Chemical modification (acetoxylation of phenols) of the polymers was employed to further tune the energy levels. The optical and electrochemical properties of the polymers were also investigated. The bandgaps of the polymers were controlled in the range of 0.5–1.95 eV, and their energy levels could also be effectively tuned. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Functionalized Polymers: Processing, Development and Applications)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 5605 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigations on the Fatigue Behavior of 3D-Printed and Thermoformed Polylactic Acid Wrist–Hand Orthoses

by Diana Popescu, Florin Baciu, Daniel Vlăsceanu, Rodica Marinescu and Dan Lăptoiu

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2737; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122737 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2528

Abstract

Additively manufactured wrist–hand orthoses (3DP-WHOs) offer several advantages over traditional splints and casts, but their development based on a patient’s 3D scans currently requires advanced engineering skills, while also recording long manufacturing times as they are commonly built in a vertical position. A [...] Read more.

Additively manufactured wrist–hand orthoses (3DP-WHOs) offer several advantages over traditional splints and casts, but their development based on a patient’s 3D scans currently requires advanced engineering skills, while also recording long manufacturing times as they are commonly built in a vertical position. A proposed alternative involves 3D printing the orthoses as a flat model base and then thermoforming them to fit the patient’s forearm. This manufacturing approach is faster, cost-effective and allows easier integration of flexible sensors as an example. However, it is unknown whether these flat-shaped 3DP-WHOs offer similar mechanical resistance as the 3D-printed hand-shaped orthoses, with a lack of research in this area being revealed by the literature review. To evaluate the mechanical properties of 3DP-WHOs produced using the two approaches, three-point bending tests and flexural fatigue tests were conducted. The results showed that both types of orthoses had similar stiffness up to 50 N, but the vertically built orthoses failed at a maximum load of 120 N, while the thermoformed orthoses could withstand up to 300 N with no damages observed. The integrity of the thermoformed orthoses was maintained after 2000 cycles at 0.5 Hz and ±2.5 mm displacement. It was observed that the minimum force occurring during fatigue tests was approximately −95 N. After 1100–1200 cycles, it reached −110 N and remained constant. The outcomes of this study are expected to enhance the trust that hand therapists, orthopedists, and patients have in using thermoformable 3DP-WHOs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 5443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wearable Pressure Sensor Using Porous Natural Polymer Hydrogel Elastomers with High Sensitivity over a Wide Sensing Range

by Fan Xiao, Shunyu Jin, Wan Zhang, Yingxin Zhang, Hang Zhou and Yuan Huang

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2736; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122736 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2080

Abstract

Wearable pressure sensors capable of quantifying full-range human dynamic motionare are pivotal in wearable electronics and human activity monitoring. Since wearable pressure sensors directly or indirectly contact skin, selecting flexible soft and skin-friendly materials is important. Wearable pressure sensors with natural polymer-based hydrogels [...] Read more.

Wearable pressure sensors capable of quantifying full-range human dynamic motionare are pivotal in wearable electronics and human activity monitoring. Since wearable pressure sensors directly or indirectly contact skin, selecting flexible soft and skin-friendly materials is important. Wearable pressure sensors with natural polymer-based hydrogels are extensively explored to enable safe contact with skin. Despite recent advances, most natural polymer-based hydrogel sensors suffer from low sensitivity at high-pressure ranges. Here, by using commercially available rosin particles as sacrificial templates, a cost-effective wide-range porous locust bean gum-based hydrogel pressure sensor is constructed. Due to the three-dimensional macroporous structure of the hydrogel, the constructed sensor exhibits high sensitivities (12.7, 5.0, and 3.2 kPa⁻¹ under 0.1–20, 20–50, and 50–100 kPa) under a wide range of pressure. The sensor also offers a fast response time (263 ms) and good durability over 500 loading/unloading cycles. In addition, the sensor is successfully applied for monitoring human dynamic motion. This work provides a low-cost and easy fabrication strategy for fabricating high-performance natural polymer-based hydrogel piezoresistive sensors with a wide response range and high sensitivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Flexible Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 4179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polypyrrole-Modified Nanocellulose Exhibits Superior Performance for Hg(II) Adsorption

by Qizhong Xiong, Lei Zhang, Zijun Zhu, Gang Xu, Jianyuan Jing, Weifeng Zhang, Chaochun Zhang and Xinxin Ye

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2735; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122735 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1570

Abstract

Cellulose, a kind of polymer containing abundant functional groups, has widespread use in the adsorptive removal of environmental pollutants. An efficient and environmental friendly polypyrrole (PPy) coating approach is employed to modify the agricultural by-product straw derived cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) into excellent property [...] Read more.

Cellulose, a kind of polymer containing abundant functional groups, has widespread use in the adsorptive removal of environmental pollutants. An efficient and environmental friendly polypyrrole (PPy) coating approach is employed to modify the agricultural by-product straw derived cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) into excellent property adsorbents for removing the heavy metal ion of Hg(II). The FT-IR and SEM-EDS results demonstrated that PPy is formed on the surface of CNC. Consequently, the adsorption measurements proved that the obtained PPy-modified CNC (CNC@PPy) possesses a remarkably enhanced Hg(II) adsorption capacity of 1095 mg g⁻¹, owing to a plentiful functional group of doped Cl element on the surface of CNC@PPy by forming Hg₂Cl₂ precipitate. The results of the study suggest that the Freundlich model is more effective than the Langmuir model at describing the isotherms, while the pseudo-second order kinetic model is better suited to correlating with the experimental data compared to the pseudo-first order model. Further, the CNC@PPy exhibits an outstanding reusability, capable of maintaining 82.3% of its original Hg(II) adsorption capacity after five successive adsorption cycles. The findings of this work reveal a method to convert the agricultural by-product into high performance environmental remediation materials. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

8 pages, 2106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Heat Treatment Effect on Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Resin Reinforced with Fiber Glass

by Zhenbo Lan, Jiangang Deng, Zhuolin Xu, Zhu Ye and Yu Nie

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2734; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122734 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1735

Abstract

In this paper, mechanical properties of the diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A epoxy resin (EP) reinforced with a 20% fiber glass (GF) with layered structure after high temperature aging are studied. Tensile and flexural stress–strain curves of the GF/EP composite after aging tests [...] Read more.

In this paper, mechanical properties of the diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A epoxy resin (EP) reinforced with a 20% fiber glass (GF) with layered structure after high temperature aging are studied. Tensile and flexural stress–strain curves of the GF/EP composite after aging tests in the temperature range of 85–145 °C in air were measured. Tensile and flexural strength demonstrate gradual decrease with the increase in the aging temperature. The failure mechanism at the micro scale is studied by the scanning electron microscopy. A separation of the GFs and EP matrix and evident pullout of the GFs are observed. Degradation of the mechanical properties is explained by a cross-linking and chain scission of the initial molecular structure of the composite and decrease in the interfacial adhesion force between GFs and EP matrix caused by oxidation of the EP matrix and difference of the GF and EP coefficients of thermal expansion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber-Reinforced Composite)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 12422 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tribo-Mechanical Investigation of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites under Dry Conditions

by Corina Birleanu, Marius Pustan, Mircea Cioaza, Paul Bere, Glad Contiu, Mircea Cristian Dudescu and Daniel Filip

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2733; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122733 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2291

Abstract

Tribo-mechanical experiments were performed on Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GRFP) composites against different engineering materials, and the tribological behavior of these materials under dry conditions was investigated. The novelty of this study consists of the investigation of the tribomechanical properties of a customized [...] Read more.

Tribo-mechanical experiments were performed on Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GRFP) composites against different engineering materials, and the tribological behavior of these materials under dry conditions was investigated. The novelty of this study consists of the investigation of the tribomechanical properties of a customized GFRP/epoxy composite, different from those identified in the literature. The investigated material in the work is composed of 270 g/m² fiberglass twill fabric/epoxy matrix. It was manufactured by the vacuum bag method and autoclave curing procedure. The goal was to define the tribo-mechanical characteristics of a 68.5% weight fraction ratio (wf) of GFRP composites in relation to the different categories of plastic materials, alloyed steel, and technical ceramics. The properties of the material, including ultimate tensile strength, Young’s modulus of elasticity, elastic strain, and impact strength of the GFPR, were determined through standard tests. The friction coefficients were obtained using a modified pin-on-disc tribometer using sliding speeds ranging from 0.1 to 0.36 m s⁻¹, load 20 N, and different counter face balls from Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polyamide (Torlon), 52,100 Chrome Alloy Steel, 440 Stainless Steel, and Ceramic Al₂O₃, with 12.7 mm in diameter, in dry conditions. These are commonly used as ball and roller bearings in industry and for a variety of automotive applications. To evaluate the wear mechanisms, the worm surfaces were examined and investigated by a Nano Focus—Optical 3D Microscopy, which uses cutting-edge μsurf technology to provide highly accurate 3D measurements of surfaces. The obtained results constitute an important database for the tribo-mechanical behavior of this engineering GFRP composite material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior of Polymeric Materials: Recent Trends and Advancements)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 1627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lignin Extracted from Various Parts of Castor (Ricinus communis L.) Plant: Structural Characterization and Catalytic Depolymerization

by Yihan Wang, Shihao Su and Guoyong Song

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2732; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122732 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1669

Abstract

Castor is an important non-edible oilseed crop used in the production of high-quality bio-oil. In this process, the leftover tissues rich in cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are regarded as by-products and remain underutilized. Lignin is a crucial recalcitrance component, and its composition and [...] Read more.

Castor is an important non-edible oilseed crop used in the production of high-quality bio-oil. In this process, the leftover tissues rich in cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are regarded as by-products and remain underutilized. Lignin is a crucial recalcitrance component, and its composition and structure strongly limit the high-value utilization of raw materials, but there is a lack of detailed studies relating to castor lignin chemistry. In this study, lignins were isolated from various parts of the castor plant, namely, stalk, root, leaf, petiole, seed endocarp and epicarp, using the dilute HCl/dioxane method, and the structural features of the as-obtained six lignins were investigated. The analyses indicated that endocarp lignin contained catechyl (C), guaiacyl (G) and syringyl (S) units, with a predominance of C unit [C/(G+S) = 6.9:1], in which the coexisted C-lignin and G/S-lignin could be disassembled completely. The isolated dioxane lignin (DL) from endocarp had a high abundance of benzodioxane linkages (85%) and a low level of β-β linkages (15%). The other lignins were enriched in G and S units with moderate amounts of β-O-4 and β-β linkages, being significantly different from endocarp lignin. Moreover, only p-coumarate (pCA) incorporated into the epicarp lignin was observed, with higher relative content, being rarely reported in previous studies. The catalytic depolymerization of isolated DL generated 1.4–35.6 wt% of aromatic monomers, among which DL from endocarp and epicarp have high yields and excellent selectivity. This work highlights the differences in lignins from various parts of the castor plant, providing a solid theory for the high-value utilization of the whole castor plant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymer Composites Application in Drug Delivery)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 2595 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Transparent PEGylated Antifouling Coatings via One-Step Pyrogallol Deposition

by Shang-Lin Yeh, Piyush Deval and Wei-Bor Tsai

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2731; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122731 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1491

Abstract

Antifouling coatings are critical for many biomedical devices. A simple and universal technique used to anchor antifouling polymers is important in order to expand its applications. In this study, we introduced the pyrogallol (PG)-assisted immobilization of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) to deposit a thin [...] Read more.

Antifouling coatings are critical for many biomedical devices. A simple and universal technique used to anchor antifouling polymers is important in order to expand its applications. In this study, we introduced the pyrogallol (PG)-assisted immobilization of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) to deposit a thin antifouling layer on biomaterials. Briefly, biomaterials were soaked in a PG/PEG solution and PEG was immobilized onto the biomaterial surfaces via PG polymerization and deposition. The kinetics of PG/PEG deposition started with the deposition of PG on the substrates, followed by the addition of a PEG-rich adlayer. However, prolonged coating added a top-most PG-rich layer, which deteriorated the antifouling efficacy. By controlling the amounts of PG and PEG and the coating time, the PG/PEG coating was able to reduce more than 99% of the adhesion of L929 cells and the adsorption of fibrinogen. The ultrathin (tens of nanometers) and smooth PG/PEG coating was easily deposited onto a wide variety of biomaterials, and the deposition was robust enough to survive harsh sterilization conditions. Furthermore, the coating was highly transparent and allowed most of the UV and Vis light to pass through. The technique has great potential to be applied to biomedical devices that need a transparent antifouling coating, such as intraocular lenses and biosensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surfaces and Interfaces of Polymer Composites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 7315 KiB

Open AccessReview

Development of Stereocomplex Polylactide Nanocomposites as an Advanced Class of Biomaterials—A Review

by Muhammad Samsuri and Purba Purnama

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2730; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122730 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1718

Abstract

This review paper analyzes the development of advanced class polylactide (PLA) materials through a combination of stereocomplexation and nanocomposites approaches. The similarities in these approaches provide the opportunity to generate an advanced stereocomplex PLA nanocomposite (stereo-nano PLA) material with various beneficial properties. As [...] Read more.

This review paper analyzes the development of advanced class polylactide (PLA) materials through a combination of stereocomplexation and nanocomposites approaches. The similarities in these approaches provide the opportunity to generate an advanced stereocomplex PLA nanocomposite (stereo-nano PLA) material with various beneficial properties. As a potential “green” polymer with tunable characteristics (e.g., modifiable molecular structure and organic–inorganic miscibility), stereo-nano PLA could be used for various advanced applications. The molecular structure modification of PLA homopolymers and nanoparticles in stereo-nano PLA materials enables us to encounter stereocomplexation and nanocomposites constraints. The hydrogen bonding of D- and L-lactide fragments aids in the formation of stereococomplex crystallites, while the hetero-nucleation capabilities of nanofillers result in a synergism that improves the physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of materials, including stereocomplex memory (melt stability) and nanoparticle dispersion. The special properties of selected nanoparticles also allow the production of stereo-nano PLA materials with distinctive characteristics, such as electrical conductivity, anti-inflammatory, and anti-bacterial properties. The D- and L-lactide chains in PLA copolymers provide self-assembly capabilities to form stable nanocarrier micelles for encapsulating nanoparticles. This development of advanced stereo-nano PLA with biodegradability, biocompatibility, and tunability properties shows potential for use in wider and advanced applications as a high-performance material, in engineering field, electronic, medical device, biomedical, diagnosis, and therapeutic applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 16547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biodegradable Cellulose/Polycaprolactone/Keratin/Calcium Carbonate Mulch Films Prepared in Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquid

by Dušica Stojanović, Aleksandra Ivanovska, Nemanja Barać, Katarina Dimić-Misić, Mirjana Kostić, Vesna Radojević, Djordje Janaćković, Petar Uskoković, Ernest Barceló and Patrick Gane

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2729; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122729 - 18 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2828

Abstract

Ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [BMIM][Cl] was used to prepare cellulose (CELL), cellulose/polycaprolactone (CELL/PCL), cellulose/polycaprolactone/keratin (CELL/PCL/KER), and cellulose/polycaprolactone/keratin/ground calcium carbonate (CELL/PCL/KER/GCC) biodegradable mulch films. Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier-Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, optical microscopy, and Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM) were used to verify the [...] Read more.

Ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [BMIM][Cl] was used to prepare cellulose (CELL), cellulose/polycaprolactone (CELL/PCL), cellulose/polycaprolactone/keratin (CELL/PCL/KER), and cellulose/polycaprolactone/keratin/ground calcium carbonate (CELL/PCL/KER/GCC) biodegradable mulch films. Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier-Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, optical microscopy, and Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM) were used to verify the films’ surface chemistry and morphology. Mulch film made of only cellulose regenerated from ionic liquid solution exhibited the highest tensile strength (75.3 ± 2.1 MPa) and modulus of elasticity of 944.4 ± 2.0 MPa. Among samples containing PCL, CELL/PCL/KER/GCC is characterized by the highest tensile strength (15.8 ± 0.4 MPa) and modulus of elasticity (687.5 ± 16.6 MPa). The film’s breaking strain decreased for all samples containing PCL upon the addition of KER and KER/GCC. The melting temperature of pure PCL is 62.3 °C, whereas that of CELL/PCL film has a slight tendency for melting point depression (61.0 °C), which is a characteristic of partially miscible polymer blends. Furthermore, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis revealed that the addition of KER or KER/GCC to CELL/PCL films resulted in an increment in melting temperature from 61.0 to 62.6 and 68.9 °C and an improvement in sample crystallinity by 2.2 and 3.0 times, respectively. The light transmittance of all studied samples was greater than 60%. The reported method for mulch film preparation is green and recyclable ([BMIM][Cl] can be recovered), and the inclusion of KER derived by extraction from waste chicken feathers enables conversion to organic biofertilizer. The findings of this study contribute to sustainable agriculture by providing nutrients that enhance the growth rate of plants, and hence food production, while reducing environmental pressure. The addition of GCC furthermore provides a source of Ca²⁺ for plant micronutrition and a supplementary control of soil pH. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Polymer Membranes and Films II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 5810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Hysteretic Behavior of FRP-Confined Concrete Core-Encased Rebar

by Jingzhou Lu, Tong Mou, Chen Wang, Han Huang and Wenyu Han

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2728; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122728 - 18 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1329

Abstract

FRP-confined concrete core-encased rebar (FCCC-R) is a novel composite structure that has recently been proposed to effectively delay the buckling of ordinary rebar and enhance its mechanical properties by utilizing high-strength mortar or concrete and an FRP strip to confine the core. The [...] Read more.

FRP-confined concrete core-encased rebar (FCCC-R) is a novel composite structure that has recently been proposed to effectively delay the buckling of ordinary rebar and enhance its mechanical properties by utilizing high-strength mortar or concrete and an FRP strip to confine the core. The purpose of this study was to study the hysteretic behavior of FCCC-R specimens under cyclic loading. Different cyclic loading systems were applied to the specimens and the resulting test data were analyzed and compared, in addition to revealing the mechanism of elongation and mechanical properties of the specimens under the different loading systems. Furthermore, finite-element simulation was performed for different FCCC-Rs using the ABAQUS software. The finite-element model was also used for the expansion parameter studies to analyze the effects of different influencing factors, including the different winding layers, winding angles of the GFRP strips, and the rebar-position eccentricity, on the hysteretic properties of FCCC-R. The test result indicates that FCCC-R exhibits superior hysteretic properties in terms of maximum compressive bearing capacity, maximum strain value, fracture stress, and envelope area of the hysteresis loop when compared to ordinary rebar. The hysteretic performance of FCCC-R increases as the slenderness ratio is increased from 10.9 to 24.5 and the constraint diameter is increased from 30 mm to 50 mm, respectively. Under the two cyclic loading systems, the elongation of the FCCC-R specimens is greater than that of ordinary rebar specimens with the same slenderness ratio. For different slenderness ratios, the range of maximum elongation improvement is about 10% to 25%, though there is still a large discrepancy compared to the elongation of ordinary rebar under monotonic tension. Despite the maximum compressive bearing capacity of FCCC-R is improved under cyclic loading, the internal rebars are more prone to buckling. The results of the finite-element simulation are in good agreement with the experimental results. According to the study of expansion parameters, it is found that the hysteretic properties of FCCC-R increase as the number of winding layers (one, three, and five layers) and winding angles (30°, 45°, and 60°) in the GFRP strips increase, while they decrease as the rebar-position eccentricity (0.15, 0.22, and 0.30) increases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites for Building and Bridge Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3154 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research on the Analysis and Application of Polymer Materials in Contemporary Sculpture Art Creation

by Chao Gao, Feng Wang, Xiaobing Hu and Ming Zhang

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2727; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122727 - 18 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3651

Abstract

The application of polymer materials in sculpture art creation is extensive and plays a significant role in the development of sculpture art. This article aims to systematically explore the application of polymer materials in contemporary sculpture art creation. The research comprehensively applies various [...] Read more.

The application of polymer materials in sculpture art creation is extensive and plays a significant role in the development of sculpture art. This article aims to systematically explore the application of polymer materials in contemporary sculpture art creation. The research comprehensively applies various techniques such as literature research, data comparison, and case analysis to explore in detail the ways, methods, and paths of polymer materials employed in the shaping, decoration, and protection of sculptural artworks. First, the article analyzes three methods of shaping sculpture artworks with polymer materials (casting, printing, and constructing). Secondly, it explores two techniques of using polymer materials to adorn sculpture artworks (coloring and imitating texture); then it discusses the significant approach of using polymer materials to protect sculptural artworks (protective spray film). Finally, the research identifies the merits and demerits of using polymer materials in contemporary sculpture art creation. The findings of this study are expected to enrich the effective application of polymer materials in contemporary sculpture art creation and offer novel techniques and ideas for contemporary sculpture art creators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials in Modern—Contemporary Art II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Polymers, Volume 15, Issue 12 (June-2 2023) – 174 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI