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Article

The Indosinian Granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Orogenic Belt, China: Distribution, Petrochemistry, and Tectonic Insights

by
Shiqi Deng
and
Yang Wang
*
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2024, 14(11), 1060; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111060
Submission received: 8 August 2024 / Revised: 30 September 2024 / Accepted: 14 October 2024 / Published: 22 October 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)
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Abstract

:
During the Indosinian orogeny, the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt experienced significant tectonic and magmatic activity, leading to the widespread emplacement of granitoid bodies. This study provides a detailed petrochemical and geochemical analysis of these granitoids, offering new insights into their tectonic settings and magmatic evolution. The granitoids of this belt are systematically categorized into arc calc-alkaline and arc tholeiitic granitoids (ACG and ATG), cordierite peraluminous and muscovite peraluminous granitoids (CPG and MPG), potassium calc-alkaline granitoids (KCG), and peralkaline granitoids (PAG) suites. ACG and ATG types dominate early magmatism (230–190 Ma), reflecting a convergent tectonic setting, while KCG and MPG types magmatism, respectively, emerged 10–20 Myr and 15–25 Myr later, during post-collisional extensional phases. Geochemical analyses show that ACG and ATG granitoids follow calcic and calc-alkalic trends, while KCG and MPG display alkalic characteristics. These findings align with the region’s tectonic transition from the closure of the Paleo–Tethys Ocean to Late Triassic transpressional deformation. This study enhances the understanding of granitoid petrogenesis and provides valuable implications for regional tectonic evolution and mineral exploration.

1. Introduction

The Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt is a region of significant geological interest due to its complex tectonic history and widespread Indosinian granitoid intrusions. The formation of Indosinian granitoids is closely tied to the tectono-magmatic evolution and geodynamic processes of the region. Understanding their genesis is not only of academic interest but also crucial for resource exploration, and recent discoveries of hard-rock-type lithium deposits have highlighted the economic importance of these granites [1,2,3]. Numerous studies have focused on the geochronology, petrology, and geochemistry of these granites, contributing to our knowledge of their formation and tectonic setting [4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12]. Despite this, differing interpretations persist regarding the genesis, tectonic environment, and mechanisms driving magmatic activity in the region, and a comprehensive understanding of the spatiotemporal distribution, petrochemical characteristics, and tectonic implications of Triassic granitoids also remains incomplete.
Traditional views suggest that the granites in the region were formed through melting induced by detachment shear heating during the collisional orogeny [4,13,14,15]. Others speculate that Triassic adakites found in the Songpan–Garze orogenic belt resulted from lithospheric delamination following crustal thickening [9,10,16]. Another hypothesis suggests that large-scale mantle-derived magma underplating and subsequent extensional collapse during the post-collisional stage of the Indosinian orogeny led to the formation of various types of granite in this region [6,7,17,18]. Extensive research has been conducted by numerous scholars on the Indosinian granitoids in this region and their relationship to tectonic evolution [4,5,9,10,12,13,19,20,21,22,23,24,25]. While various granitoid types—such as alkali-feldspar granite, syenogranite, monzogranite, and granodiorite—have been identified [10,13], inconsistent classification schemes across studies have left many ambiguously categorized. Additionally, research has predominantly focused on localized areas in the belt’s eastern segment, leaving other regions underexplored. Bridging these gaps is critical to achieving a comprehensive understanding of granite distribution, petrogenesis, and the dynamic processes shaping the entire orogenic belt.
In this paper, we systematically compile and analyze zircon U-Pb ages and whole-rock geochemical data of Indosinian granitoids from across the orogenic belt. Our objectives are to (1) reconstruct the space-time distribution of granitoid magmatism throughout the entire belt, (2) classify the granitoid types for a more comprehensive understanding of their petrogenesis and tectonic setting, and (3) decipher the tectono-magmatic evolution of the region. The insights provided by this research will not only enhance our understanding of the tectonic and magmatic processes during the Indosinian orogeny but also offer valuable insights for future geological exploration and mineral resource development.

2. Geological Background

The Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt, located between the Yangtze Craton, the East Kunlun orogen, and the Qiangtang Block on the Tibetan Plateau, forms a large triangular-shaped region across the central Tibetan Plateau. Spanning approximately 2800 km from east to west and covering an area of over 200,000 km2, it is considered the largest exposed Indosinian orogenic belt in the world [3]. The Indosinian orogenic belt of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun region extends from the Longmen Mountains in the east and stretches westward across the western Sichuan Plateau, encompassing the Danba–Markam and Yajiang–Muli terranes and the Bayan Har and Hoh Xil regions of Qinghai Province before crossing the Altun Tagh to reach the West Kunlun region. This orogenic belt is bounded to the north by the Animaqing Paleo–Tethys suture, which separates it from the East Kunlun–West Qinling orogenic belt. To the southwest, it is bordered by the Jinsha River Paleo–Tethys suture, adjacent to the Qiangtang–Changdu Block on the margin of the Gondwana continent. The southeastern boundary is defined by the Longmen Mountain–Jinping Shan, where it interfaces with the Yangtze Craton. This orogenic belt exhibits characteristics of multi-block convergence and collision from various directions [8,26,27,28,29,30,31].
During the Permo–Triassic period, the western Sichuan Plateau and Bayan Har Mountains, which form the main part of this orogenic belt, were part of a passive margin basin along the western edge of the Yangtze Craton [32]. In the Triassic, a thick flysch sequence, ranging from 5 to 15 km in thickness, was deposited within the Bayan Har basin. This sequence, known as the Xikang Group, consists primarily of sandstone and slate [32,33]. With the closure of the Paleo–Tethys Ocean, the Yidun arc emerged along the southeastern margin of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt; meanwhile, the belt was subjected to compressive deformation [34,35,36]. This tectonic activity led to the formation of complex, disharmonic, and angular tight folds within the Xikang Group [13]. The belt is also marked by widespread Indosinian granitoid intrusions, which cut through the folded Xikang Group and the underlying strata. These granitoid bodies are dispersed across the orogenic belt, often appearing as small plutons and stocks, with larger exposures concentrated in the eastern and southern portions of the belt (Figure 1) [3,37]. Moreover, the region is characterized by the presence of both lithium-rich and lithium-poor pegmatite veins [3,38], also known as the Songpan–Garze pegmatite-type lithium ore chain [3,38,39].
Based on the exposure of granitoid bodies and the underlying geological context, the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt is broadly subdivided into five distinct subregions (Figure 1): the Danba–Markam terrane, the Yajiang–Muli terrane, the Yidun arc, the Bayan Har Block, and the Hoh Xil–West Kunlun Zone. The Danba–Markam and Yajiang–Muli terranes occupy the eastern portion of the Songpan–Garze highland and are separated by the SE–NW trending Xianshuihe Fault, with the Danba–Markam terrane to the north and the Yajiang–Muli terrane to the south. The Yidun arc, located southwest of the Yajiang–Muli terrane, is separated by the Jinsha River Suture Zone and serves as a crucial boundary between the Eurasian and Gondwana plates. The Bayan Har Block occupies the western half of the Songpan–Garze highland and is bounded by the East Kunlun orogenic belt to the north and the Qiangtang–Changdu Block to the south, playing a central role in the structural framework of the Tibetan Plateau. Further west of the Qinghai–Tibet Highway, the Triassic flysch sedimentary sequences extend into the northern Hoh Xil region and further westward into the West Kunlun Range, where they have been intruded by Triassic granitoids. Thus this east–west extending zone is referred to in this study as the Hoh Xil–West Kunlun Zone.

3. Data Compilation and Categorization

In this study, we compiled the U-Pb ages and geochemistry of ninety-four Indosinian granitoids in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt from the publications up to January 2024. The dataset includes 147 zircon U-Pb ages and 734 whole-rock compositions of major and trace elements. The locations of the reported U-Pb ages are plotted in Figure 2 and are listed in Supplementary Table S1.
For describing the petrological characteristics of the Indosinian granitoids, the chemical–mineral classification scheme suggested by Bonin [41] is adopted to categorize the granitoids. The scheme, developed from Barbarin’s [42] proposal, classifies granitoids into six major groups, i.e., arc calcic-alkaline and arc tholeiitic granitoids (ACG and ATG), cordierite peraluminous and muscovite peraluminous granitoids (CPG and MPG), potassium calcic-alkaline granitoids (KCG), peralkaline granitoids (PAG), ridge tholeiitic granitoids (RTG), and tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite (TTG) suites. In contrast to the traditional S-I-M-A classifications (Table 1), the chemical–mineral scheme provides a more objective and systematic approach to labeling the petrological features of different granitoid groups [41,42,43]. The ACG and ATG rocks can be approximately compared to Pitcher’s [44] Andean I-type granites, and CPG and MPGs to S-type granites, while PAGs are equivalent to A1-type granites, and KCGs are composed of Caledonian I-type and A2-type granitoids. RTG rocks mainly occur in ophiolites, while TTGs are primarily distributed in Precambrian terranes. The latter two groups are not relevant to the Indosinian magmatism in the study regions.
GraniteClassifier [45] is a machine learning tool based on Bonin [41]. It employs five sophisticated algorithms: MLP (Multi-Layer Perceptron), which utilizes a layered neural network to model intricate patterns through non-linear transformations; SVM (Support Vector Machine), which finds the optimal hyperplane for class separation in high-dimensional spaces; RF (Random Forest), an ensemble learning method that constructs multiple decision trees to improve accuracy and reduce overfitting; KNN (K-Nearest Neighbor), which classifies data points based on the majority class of their nearest neighbors; and GB (Gradient Boosting), which combines weak learners into a strong predictive model through iterative boosting techniques. These algorithms were trained on a comprehensive global granitoid dataset sourced from regions including Australia, North America, Japan, and Africa, comprising 10 key oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, FeOT, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5). The dataset underwent preprocessing through a Box–Cox transformation and normalization using StandardScaler. Subsequently, it was split into 80% for training and 20% for testing, with model performance assessed using an F1 score and 10-fold cross-validation. GraniteClassifier surpasses traditional binary and ternary classification methods by effectively capturing complex nonlinear relationships, thereby enhancing accuracy in geological analyses. The results show that MLP achieved the highest accuracy (91.70%), followed by SVM (90%), RF and KNN (89%), and GB with the lowest. In this paper, we utilized MLP and SVM algorithms to classify Indosinian granitoids in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt; the final results are presented in Figure 3 and Supplementary Table S2.
In the study area, the peraluminous granitoids, which are categorized as the CPG and MPG rocks, are muscovite-bearing granitoids, and no cordierite was found in these rocks. Accordingly, these peraluminous granitoids will be referred to as MPG (muscovite-bearing granitoids) in the subsequent discussions. As shown in Figure 3, ACG and ATG rocks dominate the granitoid populations across the entire orogen and within each sub-region. KCGs are secondary in abundance, followed by MPG, while PAG rocks are rare. Further discussion is provided in Section 4.

4. Spatiotemporal Variation in Magmatism

Previous studies, including Hu [14], Cai [46], Zhou [47], and Ye [48], have identified two major phases of magmatic activity in the region: syn-collisional granites formed between 243 and 227 Ma, and post-collisional granites from 219 to 210 Ma. Furthermore, they observed a pronounced peak in magmatic activity between 225 and 205 Ma, with the most intense phase occurring around 210 Ma. Based on the analysis of magmatic ages in this paper, the granitoids were categorized into four distinct age groups: 250–225 Ma, 225–215 Ma, 215–200 Ma, and 200–180 Ma. These groups were chosen to reflect the major phases of tectono-magmatic evolution in the region. The distribution and statistical representation of these age groups are illustrated in Figure 4. Temporally, the granitoids in the orogenic belt range in age from 247 to 158 Ma, with the majority of the granitoids occurring between 230 and 190 Ma. Magmatism was most intense between 215 and 200 Ma.
All five sub-regions demonstrate a peak period of granitic magmatic activity during the Late Triassic, specifically between 215 and 200 Ma. By separately analyzing the number of plutons in each of the five sub-regions across different age intervals, we find that the Danba–Markam block has consistently more plutons in each age interval compared to the other four regions. This suggests that the Danba–Markam block exhibits higher spatial activity in terms of magmatic and tectonic processes (Figure 5).
The results of regional statistics indicate that the recorded ages of granitic rocks in the Danba–Markam block range from 247 to 164 Ma, in the Yajiang–Muli block from 228 to 194 Ma, in the Yidun arc from 240 to 158 Ma, in the Bayan Har Block from 225 to 196 Ma, and in the Hoh Xil–West Kunlun Zone from 240 to 183 Ma. The classification of granitoids in each region is shown in Table 2.
We categorize the Indosinian magmatic activities in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt into four phases: (1) the first phase, Early–Middle Triassic (247–225 Ma), (2) the second phase, early epoch of Late Triassic (225–215 Ma), (3) the climax phase, late epoch of Late Triassic (215–205 Ma), and (4) the waning phase, from the end of Triassic to Early–Middle Jurassic (205–158 Ma). Across the entire orogenic belt, the ACG- and ATG-type magmatism persisted from the Early Triassic through to the Late Jurassic. However, compared to the onset of ACG and ATG activities, the appearance of KCG-type magmatism was delayed by approximately 10–20 Myr, and the emplacement of MPG was delayed by 20–25 Myr. The rare occurrence of PAG rocks was observed only during the latest phase of magmatism (Table 2).
This timing discrepancy between KCG and MPG magmatism can be attributed to distinct petrogenetic mechanisms and heat sources. KCG-type granitoids, which involve mantle-derived magmas interacting with thickened crust, may have formed earlier due to rapid mantle–crust interactions during the late syn-collisional to early post-collisional phases. In contrast, MPG magmas, which are primarily generated through partial melting of thickened crust, likely required prolonged heat accumulation, driven by both episodic magmatic intrusions and radiogenic decay. Additionally, the Songpan–Garze area contains multiple subduction zones with distinct evolutionary histories, potentially leading to varied magmatic timelines across the region. The subduction in the Songpan–Garze area ended before the Late Triassic, yet arc-related magmatism (247–164 Ma) continued. This may be due to the remelting of subduction-related rocks caused by post-collisional processes.

5. Petrochemical Characteristics of Indosinian Granitoids

The major elements of whole-rock composition are crucial for understanding the composition and evolution of granitoids, as they reflect the modal abundances of key rock-forming minerals such as quartz and feldspars. Among the ten major oxides found in common igneous rocks, SiO2, K2O, Na2O, and CaO are particularly significant due to their role in the primary minerals of granitoids. Consequently, analyzing these major elements provides valuable insights into the origin and evolution of granitoid magmas. While the QAPF diagram, developed by Streckeisen and Le Maitre [49], is widely used for classifying igneous rocks based on mineral modal content, Enrique’s [50] method offers a more detailed classification with 21 intervals compared to the 17 in the QAPF diagram. This method standardized igneous rock classification and is advantageous in distinguishing different types of rocks, such as diorites and gabbros, by addressing the issue of defining plagioclase compositions where An < 5. Because the SiO2′−CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram offers a nuanced representation of quartz and feldspar compositions within granitoids, we use it in this paper to classify and understand granitoids more precisely (Figure 6). The horizontal axis of the diagram represents 100·CaO/(CaO + K2O), which approximates the relative abundance of plagioclase versus alkali-feldspar. The vertical axis is defined as SiO2′ = SiO2 + 20.4·CaO/(CaO + K2O) − 64.8, providing a measure of the quartz modal content in the granitoids [50,51,52]. This approach is advantageous as it avoids the limitations associated with traditional diagrams and provides a clearer classification of different granitoid types.
The numerical labels of the “pigeonhole” in diagrams correspond to the lithologies of common plutonic rocks defined by the modal QAP diagram [53]. Four curves representing the evolving paths of the alkaline, alkali-calcic, calc-alkalic, and calcic granitoids [54] are superimposed (Figure 6), and then the diagram can intuitively display the evolutionary trends of granitoid suites and their corresponding specific lithologies. For example, the projections of calcic suite samples in Figure 6 demonstrate an evolving path along an upward convex trend from gabbro/diorite, quartz diorite to tonalite and granodiorite ended in monzogranite and syenogranite domains. The calc-alkalic samples trend more straightly from quartz diorite to granodiorite, and then to monzogranite and syenogranite. However, the alkali-calcic suite goes from quartz monzodiorite to quartz monzonite with the ending in syenogranite domain. The alkalic samples are distributed in the monzodiorite, monzonite/syenite, quartz monzonite/quartz syenite and syenogranite domains (Figure 6). The granitoid samples in our compiled dataset are plotted into the SiO2′−CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram to discriminate the evolving paths and the abundance of lithologies within the different granitoid categories of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt (Figure 7).
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Figure 6. The projections of typical alkalic, alkali-calcic, calc-alkalic, and calcic granitoid suites exemplified by Frost [54] in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram [50].
Figure 6. The projections of typical alkalic, alkali-calcic, calc-alkalic, and calcic granitoid suites exemplified by Frost [54] in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram [50].
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As shown in Figure 3, the chemical–mineral types of Indosinian granitoids in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt mainly belong to ACG and ATG, followed by KCG. The number of samples belonging to MPG is slightly lower than that of KCG, and there are very few PAG samples.
In the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram, the ACG and ATG granitoids of Danba–Markam terrane are mainly distributed along the calc-alkalic trend line with a rock assemblage of quartz diorite/tonalite–granodiorite–monzogranite. The KCG-type samples are distributed between the alkali-calcic and alkalic trend lines, with a rock assemblage of monzodiorite–quartz monzodiorite–quartz and syenite–syenogranite. The MPG types are mainly represented by monzogranite and syenogranite in terms of lithology.
The ACG and ATG granitoids in the Yajiang–Muli terrane are abundant. They are distributed partially along the calcic trend line, and partially between the calc-alkalic and alkali-calcic trend lines in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram, corresponding to quartz diorite–tonalite assemblages and quartz diorite–tonalite–granodiorite assemblages, respectively. The KCG samples are distributed along the alkali-calcic and alkalic trend lines. The MPG types are mainly represented by syenogranite in terms of lithology.
In Yidun arc, the sample number of ACG and ATG, KCG and MPG categories decreases sequentially. The ACG and ATG granitoids mainly distributed along both sides of the calc-alkalic trend line in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram, with a rock assemblage of tonalite–granodiorite–monzogranite. The KCG samples are distributed between the alkali-calcic and alkalic trend lines, with a rock assemblage of quartz monzodiorite–quartz monzonite. The MPG types are represented by syenogranite or alkali-feldspar granite.
In the Bayan Har Block, the ACG and ATG granitoids are mainly distributed near the calc-alkalic trend line in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram, showing a rock assemblage of gabbro/diorite–quartz diorite–tonalite–granodiorite–monzogranite. The KCG samples are distributed between the calc-alkalic, alkalic-calcic, and alkalic trend lines, with a rock assemblage of quartz monzodiorite–quartz monzonite–quartz syenite, as well as alkali-feldspar syenite–quartz syenite. The low-silicic MPGs evolved along calc-alkalc trend.
In Hoh Xil–West Kunlun Zone, the ACG and ATG granitoids are mainly distributed between the calc-alkalic and alkali-calcic trend lines in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram, with a rock assemblage characterized by quartz diorite/tonalite–granodiorite/quartz monzodiorite–monzogranite/quartz monzonite. The MPGs, whose number is superior to that of KCGs in the zone, are represented by syenogranite or alkali-feldspar granite in terms of lithology, and the low-silicic ones evolved along alkali-calcic trend. The KCG samples are primarily distributed along the alkali-calcic trend line.
In summary, the ACG and ATG granitoids, which are dominant in the Indosinian Songpan–Garze–Hoh Xil–West Kunlun orogenic belt, primarily present calcic and calc-alkalic evolutionary trends in their geochemical composition. Meanwhile, many KCG samples evolved along the alkalic or alkali-calcic trend. Most of the MPG rocks have high-SiO2 contents and lay in the granite (s.s.) domain of the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram. However, the low-silicic MPGs that occurred in Bayan Har Block and Hoh Xil–West Kunlun Zone exhibit calc-alkalic or alkali-calcic characters.

6. Tectonic Setting and Tectono-Magmatic Evolution

The major element of chemistry plays an important role in understanding the nature of granitoids [55]. Besides the basic classification of lithologies (i.e., rock naming), the major element chemistry gives constraints on the petrogenesis of igneous rocks [41,56,57], and also provides important clues for discrimination of the tectonic setting in where the rocks are formed [43,56,58].
Following the suggestions by previous studies, we adopt the major element-based diagram to discriminate the tectonic setting for the Indosinian granitoids that occurred in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun belt. From a major elements dataset of the typical granitoid suites within the well-defined tectonic settings compiled by Sun and Wang [52], two examples of the typical convergent margins are represented by SiO2′−CaO/(CaO + K2O) plots as shown in Figure 8. Figure 8a,b illustrate the projections of samples from the intrusive rocks of the pre-Pleistocene magmatic arc in Chile and the granitoids from the Appalachian orogenic belt in the Gaspesie region of Quebec and New Brunswick region of eastern Canada, respectively. For both cases, the majority of samples spread between the evolving paths of calcic, calcic-alkalic, and alkalic-calcic suites, though a few samples are located near the alkalic suite path. Comparing the plotting of the samples from Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun belt (Figure 7) with those of the Chile arc and Appalachian orogen (Figure 8), similar patterns of the samples’ distributions can be observed. It implies that the tectonic setting of the Indosinian Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt can be analogized to that of the continental magmatic arc (Chile) or the strike-slip compression orogenic belt (eastern Canada). The comparison highlights that while some regions, such as the Danba–Markam and Yajiang–Muli terranes, closely resemble the Chile magmatic arc, others like the Bayan Har Block and Hoh Xil–West Kunlun Zone share similarities with the Appalachian orogeny. The Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Belt, therefore, exhibits characteristics of both continental arc and post-collisional tectonic settings.
The discrimination of tectonic settings by trace elements approves the recognition derived from major elements. The samples from the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt are plotted in the Ba/La-Yb-Nb diagram, which is proposed to distinguish the geochemistry of the rocks that occurred in the transform subduction margins (RTM) from that of the rocks in the normal subduction margins [61] (Figure 9). It is observed that all samples from the five terranes of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Belt are located in the RTM domain of the Ba/La-Yb-Nb diagram. Thus, it can be inferred the Indosinian granitoids were formed at an active plate margin with a strike–slip convergent kinematic mechanism. In addition to geochemical data, further geological evidence substantiates this interpretation. The presence of major shear zones and strike–slip faults, such as the Longmen Shan and Garze–Litang shear zones, aligns with the tectonic characteristics of RTM environments, where differential plate motion is accommodated by transform faults. Furthermore, the presence of high-pressure, low-temperature metamorphic rocks, combined with granitoids exhibiting high Sr/Y ratios and low Y concentrations, is indicative of subduction-related thermal conditions typical of RTM environments. These findings, along with the isotopic and geochronological evidence correlating with global RTM settings, strengthen the conclusion that the Indosinian granitoids were formed in a transform subduction margin.
The different granitoid types, being classified according to their chemical–mineral features by Bonin [41], have distinct petrogenetic mechanisms and give the clue for the tectonic settings in which they are generated. The ACG and ATG rocks are mainly derived from the fractional crystallization of mafic magmas and occur primarily in the convergent plate boundaries [57]. The CPG and MPG rocks originated from the partial melting of crustal rocks and often occur as batholith within the over-thickened crust of collisional orogens [62]. The CPGs (cordierite-bearing peraluminous granites) and the MPGs (muscovite-bearing peraluminous granites) are formed in the fluid-poor or fluid-abundant conditions, respectively [42]. The KCGs were grouped as the Caledonian-type I-type granites by Pitcher [44] or the secondary I-type granite by Castro [63], and their petrogenesis is much more complex than those of ACG and ATG or CPG and MPG. The fractionation of mantle-derived mafic magmas, accompanied by the assimilation and contamination of wall rocks in the deep crustal “hot zone”, dominate the generation of these hybrid granitoids [63]. Though the KCGs dominate the granitic magmatism in the post-collisional epoch of an orogenic belt, they also appear in various tectonic settings [41,57]. The PAG rocks are mainly derived from the fractionation of alkaline mafic magmas and would be placed in an extensional environment related to the waning stage of orogenesis or the non-orogenic settings.
Integrating the information from the spatiotemporal distribution of Indosinian granitoids and the petrogenesis of different granitoid groups, the Triassic tectono-magmatic evolution of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Belt can be summarized as follows:
  • During the Early to Middle Triassic period (245~225 Ma), the closure of the Paleo–Tethys ocean between the Yangtze Block and the Qiangtang Block caused the tectonic transformation of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Belt from a flysch basin sitting on passive continental margin to a strike–slip convergent belt. The subduction of Paleo–Tethys oceanic plate initiated the ACG and ATG magmatism. The intruding ACG and ATG magmas experienced the assimilation and hybridization of wall rock along their ascending paths, which became much longer due to the continuous thickening of the crust. After ten to fifteen million years, the KCG-type granitoids first occurred as the result of full interaction between the mantle-derived ACG and ATG magma and the continental crust.
  • From 225 Ma to 215 Ma, the fully thickened crust of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Belt accumulated enough heat, which was brought by the episodic intrusions of ACG and ATG magmas into the fully thickened crust accompanied by the heat coming from the radioactive decay of heat-producing elements in the over-thickened meta-sediment pill to generate the MPG magmas.
  • In the late epoch of the Triassic (215~200 Ma), the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Belt developed into a mature orogen due to the ongoing subduction and related transpressional deformation. Thetectono-magmatic activities reached their peak as remarked by the widespread granitoids, which intruded into the intensively folded and metamorphised flysch deposits. Besides ACG and ATG plutons, a lot of MPG and KCG batholiths are placed into the upper crust. A small amount of PAG plutons occurred after 210 Ma, indicating the turning of orogenic evolution from compression to extension.
  • Finally, the Early Jurassic (200~180 Ma) witnessed the waning of magmatism in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Belt. Only a few plutons occurred during this epoch.
Our study is broadly consistent with the prevailing interpretation that Early to Middle Triassic magmatism was primarily induced by the subduction of the Paleo–Tethys oceanic plate, as proposed by Xu et al. [13] and Roger et al. [4]. However, we refine this understanding by highlighting the prolonged nature of subduction and significant mantle–crust interactions, diverging from the lithospheric delamination model proposed by Xiao and Zhang [10]. Furthermore, while Zhao [17] and Cai et al. [6] attribute post-collisional magmatism to large-scale mantle underplating, our findings suggest that heat accumulation within the thickened crust—due to episodic magmatic intrusions—was the principal driver of MPG magmatism during the Middle to Late Triassic. Lastly, our conclusions concur with Cai et al. [7] regarding the extensional collapse during the Early Jurassic, but we provide a more refined temporal framework for the progressive thinning of the crust and its correlation with declining magmatic activity. In summary, while our results are consistent with several previous interpretations, they underscore the complex, multi-stage tectono-magmatic evolution of the region, driven by both mantle-derived processes and protracted crustal thickening.
With the highest intensity of Triassic magmatism among the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Belt, the Danba–Markam terrane provides a window to examine this tectono-magmatic framework from the perspective of the variation in crustal thickness spanning from Early Triassic to Early Jurassic. The crustal thickness in geological time is estimated from the inversion of the geochemistry of granitoids by a machine learning approach using the Extreme Randomized Trees (ERT) algorithm [64]. As presented in Figure 10, the geochemistry of ACG and ATG granitoids records a continuous thickening of crust in the Danba–Markam terrane from 40 to 50 km in the Early to Middle Triassic (245~220 Ma) to the 60 to 70 km in the Late Triassic (around 210 Ma). After that, the thickness of the crust decreased gradually, and the geochemistry of granitoids implies a 35 to 45 km thick crust in the Early Jurassic (200~180 Ma). The MPG plutons in the Danba–Markam terrane, first placed around 220 Ma, correspond to a crustal thickness of approximately 60 km. This depth is greater than that of the contemporaneous ACG and ATG and KCG plutons, yet aligns with the post-collisional tectonic processes and significant crustal thickening during this period, which provided ideal conditions for deep magmatic activity and is consistent with the overall tectonic evolution of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt. In such post-collisional settings, deep-seated magmatism is common, as the thickened crust impedes the rapid ascent of magma, resulting in its emplacement at greater depths. Additionally, the successive intrusions of MPG plutons from the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic (210 to 180 Ma) record a decreasing trend in crustal thickness, reflecting the gradual tectonic adjustment over time. Accordingly, the time-varied crustal thickness in the Danba–Markam terrane matches the the tectono-magmatic evolution framework well.

7. Conclusions

According to the classification scheme from the mineralogical and chemical criteria proposed by Bonin [41], the Indosinian granitoids in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt can be grouped as four major types, i.e., the arc calcic-alkaline and arc tholeiitic granitoids (ACG and ATG), the high-K calcic-alkaline granitoids (KCG), the muscovite-bearing peraluminous granitoids (MPG), and the peralkaline granitoids (PAG). The majority of plutons that occurred in the belt belong to the ACG and ATG type and the KCG and the MPG plutons are subordinate in number; however, the PAG rocks are rare.
The spatiotemporal distribution of these granitoids reveals that the Triassic magmatism began to develop in the Early Triassic (245~225 Ma) and is related to the closure of the Paleo–Tethys ocean along the formerly passive margins of ancient continental blocks such as Yangtze and Tarim craton. A transpressional convergent environment is suggested by the geochemistry of the ACG and ATG granitoids. Following approximately 15 to 20 million years of compressional deformation, the KCG- and MPG-type granitic magmatism began to emerge in the early epoch of the Late Triassic (225~215 Ma). Magmatism reached its peak towards the end of the Triassic (215–200 Ma), with widespread emplacement of ACG and ATG, KCG, and MPG rocks intruded as batholiths or large plutons. However, the intensity of magmatism decreased sharply during the Early Jurassic (200~180 Ma). Finally, the granitic activities ceased with the end of the orogenic processes in the Middle Jurassic.
The paleo–crustal thickness obtained by the machine-learning inversion of the major and trace element geochemistry of granitoids mimics a temporal variation in crust from thickening to thinning in the Danba–Markam terrane during the whole epoch of Indosinian orogeny. This variation mirrors the tectonic evolution of the region, reflecting the dynamic processes of crustal deformation and magmatic activity during this pivotal geological period.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min14111060/s1, Table S1: Zircon U-Pb isotope ages of plutons in the Songpan-Garze-West Kunlun Orogenic Belt; Table S2: The categorization of the Indosinian granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt; Table S3: The projections of the Indosinian granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt; Table S4: Temporal variation in the crustal thickness of the Danba–Markam terrane in the epoch from the Triassic to Early Jurassic. References [65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128] are cited in Supplementary Materials.

Author Contributions

Conceptuaxlization, S.D. and Y.W.; methodology and formal analysis, S.D.; data curation, S.D.; writing—original draft preparation, S.D.; writing—review and editing, S.D. and Y.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the PetroChina Changqing Oilfield Company Key Scientific and Technological Research Project titled ‘Tectonic-Sedimentary Evolution, Hydrocarbon Generation Mechanisms, and New Exploration Prospects of the Mesoproterozoic-Ordovician in the Ordos Basin’ (Project No. ZDZX2021-01).

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article and the Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable input to this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Simplified geological map of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt [40].
Figure 1. Simplified geological map of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt [40].
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Figure 2. The spatial distribution of the zircon U-Pb ages of Indosinian granitoids in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt (a), and their projections along the longitude (b) [40] (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S1).
Figure 2. The spatial distribution of the zircon U-Pb ages of Indosinian granitoids in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt (a), and their projections along the longitude (b) [40] (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S1).
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Figure 3. The categorization of the Indosinian granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt according to the chemical–mineralogical classification proposed by Bonin [41]; the histograms are demonstrated by (a) locations and by (b) granitoid categories (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S2).
Figure 3. The categorization of the Indosinian granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt according to the chemical–mineralogical classification proposed by Bonin [41]; the histograms are demonstrated by (a) locations and by (b) granitoid categories (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S2).
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Figure 4. The zircon U-Pb age histogram of the Indosinian granitoids in Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt.
Figure 4. The zircon U-Pb age histogram of the Indosinian granitoids in Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt.
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Figure 5. The age histograms of the Indosinian granitoids illustrated for the sub-regions of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt as grouped (a) by sub-region and (b) by time span.
Figure 5. The age histograms of the Indosinian granitoids illustrated for the sub-regions of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt as grouped (a) by sub-region and (b) by time span.
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Figure 7. The projections of the Indosinian granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S3) (a) Damba–Markam terrane; (b) Yajiang–Muli terrane; (c) Yidun arc; (d) Bayan Har Block; (e) Hoh Xil–West Kunlun Zone.
Figure 7. The projections of the Indosinian granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S3) (a) Damba–Markam terrane; (b) Yajiang–Muli terrane; (c) Yidun arc; (d) Bayan Har Block; (e) Hoh Xil–West Kunlun Zone.
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Figure 8. The projections of the granitoids in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram for (a) the pre-Pleistocene plutonic rocks related to the arc of Chile (between the Pacific coast and the High Andes) [59], and (b) the Appalachian granitoid rocks of the New Brunswick and Gaspesie, Quebec [60].
Figure 8. The projections of the granitoids in the SiO2′−100·CaO/(CaO + K2O) diagram for (a) the pre-Pleistocene plutonic rocks related to the arc of Chile (between the Pacific coast and the High Andes) [59], and (b) the Appalachian granitoid rocks of the New Brunswick and Gaspesie, Quebec [60].
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Figure 9. The projections of the Indosinian granitoids of the Songpan–Ganze–Kalakunlun orogenic belt in the Ba/La–Yb–Nb diagram [61] (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S3). (a) Damba–Markam terrane; (b) Yajiang–Muli terrane; (c) Yidun arc; (d) Bayan Har; (e) West Kunlun. RCM—magmatic rocks related to the convergent boundary, RTM—magmatic rocks related to the transform convergent boundary.
Figure 9. The projections of the Indosinian granitoids of the Songpan–Ganze–Kalakunlun orogenic belt in the Ba/La–Yb–Nb diagram [61] (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S3). (a) Damba–Markam terrane; (b) Yajiang–Muli terrane; (c) Yidun arc; (d) Bayan Har; (e) West Kunlun. RCM—magmatic rocks related to the convergent boundary, RTM—magmatic rocks related to the transform convergent boundary.
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Figure 10. Temporal variation in the crustal thickness of the Danba–Markam terrane in the epoch from the Triassic to Early Jurassic (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S4).
Figure 10. Temporal variation in the crustal thickness of the Danba–Markam terrane in the epoch from the Triassic to Early Jurassic (data sources are listed in Supplementary Table S4).
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Table 1. Traditional classification of granitoids.
Table 1. Traditional classification of granitoids.
TypeRepresentative RocksGenetic Environment
I-typeTonalite, granodiorite, metaluminous calc-alkaline granitoidsFormed in subduction-related settings, including island arcs and continental margin arcs, as well as in syn-collisional, post-collisional extension, and intraplate extensional environments
M-typeOceanic plagiogranites from ophiolite complexes and other mantle-derived granitoidsProducts of magma mixing between mantle-derived and oceanic crustal magmas in volcanic islands within oceanic settings (belonging to tholeiitic magma series)
A-type (subdivided into A1 (AA) and A2 (PA) types)Alkali-feldspar granites and weakly alkaline granitoidsCrystallization differentiation of mafic magmas from depleted mantle sources or partial melting of enriched mantle or newly accreted lower crust through underplating. A1-type (AA) forms in continental rift or intraplate settings, while A2-type (PA) forms in collisional or island arc magmatic settings
S-typeCordierite granite, two-mica granite, and other peraluminous granitoidsFormed from the partial melting of sedimentary rocks in the upper crust, typically in continental collision zones or cratonic shear zones
Table 2. The time spans of the Indosinian granitoids in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt as grouped by their chemical–mineral categories (age in Ma).
Table 2. The time spans of the Indosinian granitoids in the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun orogenic belt as grouped by their chemical–mineral categories (age in Ma).
TypeDanba–MarkamYajiang–MuliYidunBayan HarHoh Xil–West KunlunThe Entire Orogenic Belt
ACG and ATG247~164227~194230~160225~197240~183247~160
KCG229~188223~218212~158215~201222~183229~158
MPG220~189203~200202~158211~197222~206222~158
PAG229~212—229~224209~207—229~207
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Deng, S.; Wang, Y. The Indosinian Granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Orogenic Belt, China: Distribution, Petrochemistry, and Tectonic Insights. Minerals 2024, 14, 1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111060

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Deng S, Wang Y. The Indosinian Granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Orogenic Belt, China: Distribution, Petrochemistry, and Tectonic Insights. Minerals. 2024; 14(11):1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111060

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Deng, Shiqi, and Yang Wang. 2024. "The Indosinian Granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Orogenic Belt, China: Distribution, Petrochemistry, and Tectonic Insights" Minerals 14, no. 11: 1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111060

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Deng, S., & Wang, Y. (2024). The Indosinian Granitoids of the Songpan–Garze–West Kunlun Orogenic Belt, China: Distribution, Petrochemistry, and Tectonic Insights. Minerals, 14(11), 1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111060

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