Metals

4136 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reduced Fracture Toughness of Metallic Glass at Cryogenic Temperature

by Yihao Zhou, Jiaxin Liu, Dongxue Han, Xiangru Chen, Gang Wang and Qijie Zhai

Metals 2017, 7(4), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040151 - 23 Apr 2017

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5041

The effects of cryogenic temperature on the toughness of a Zr-based metallic glass are investigated. Based on three-dimensional fracture morphologies at different temperatures, the crack formation and propagation are analyzed. Through the calculation of the shear transformation zone volume, the shear modulus and [...] Read more.

The effects of cryogenic temperature on the toughness of a Zr-based metallic glass are investigated. Based on three-dimensional fracture morphologies at different temperatures, the crack formation and propagation are analyzed. Through the calculation of the shear transformation zone volume, the shear modulus and bulk modulus of the metallic glass at different temperatures and the crack formation mechanism associated with the temperature is discussed. Once the crack commences propagation, the hyperelasticity model is used to elucidate the fractographic evolution of crack propagation. Full article

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5019 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of J55ERW Steel Pipe Processed by On-Line Spray Water Cooling

by Zejun Chen, Xin Chen and Tianpeng Zhou

Metals 2017, 7(4), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040150 - 23 Apr 2017

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7677

Abstract

An on-line spray water cooling (OSWC) process for manufacturing electric resistance welded (ERW) steel pipes is presented to enhance their mechanical properties and performances. This technique reduces the processing needed for the ERW pipe and overcomes the weakness of the conventional manufacturing technique. [...] Read more.

An on-line spray water cooling (OSWC) process for manufacturing electric resistance welded (ERW) steel pipes is presented to enhance their mechanical properties and performances. This technique reduces the processing needed for the ERW pipe and overcomes the weakness of the conventional manufacturing technique. Industrial tests for J55 ERW steel pipe were carried out to validate the effectiveness of the OSWC process. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the J55 ERW steel pipe processed by the OSWC technology were investigated. The optimized OSWC technical parameters are presented based on the mechanical properties and impact the performance of steel pipes. The industrial tests show that the OSWC process can be used to efficiently control the microstructure, enhance mechanical properties, and improve production flexibility of steel pipes. The comprehensive mechanical properties of steel pipes processed by the OSWC are superior to those of other published J55 grade steels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)

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10296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Parameters on Internal Crack Healing in 30Cr2Ni4MoV Steel for 600-Ton Ultra-Super Ingots

by Ruishan Xin, Jianbin Luo and Qingxian Ma

Metals 2017, 7(4), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040149 - 21 Apr 2017

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4481

Abstract

The effect of parameters on internal crack healing in 30Cr2Ni4MoV steel for 600-ton ultra-super ingots was systematically investigated. The results show that the degree of crack healing increases with increasing healing temperature, holding time, reduction ratio, and hot pressure, and with decreasing strain [...] Read more.

The effect of parameters on internal crack healing in 30Cr2Ni4MoV steel for 600-ton ultra-super ingots was systematically investigated. The results show that the degree of crack healing increases with increasing healing temperature, holding time, reduction ratio, and hot pressure, and with decreasing strain rate. Internal crack healing in 30Cr2Ni4MoV steel should be conducted at less than 1200 °C to avoid grain coarsening. Hot pressure, in the high-temperature elastic zone and perpendicular to the crack faces, not only promotes the rapid crack healing, but also prevents grain coarsening of the matrix. Full article

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4020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formation and Corrosion Behavior of Mechanically-Alloyed Cu–Zr–Ti Bulk Metallic Glasses

by Pee-Yew Lee, Yeh-Ming Cheng, Jyun-Yu Chen and Chia-Jung Hu

Metals 2017, 7(4), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040148 - 20 Apr 2017

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4978

Abstract

Cu₆₀Zr₃₀Ti₁₀ metallic glass powder was prepared by mechanically alloying a mixture of pure Cu, Zr, and Ti powders after 5 h of milling. Cu₆₀Zr₃₀Ti₁₀ bulk metallic glass (BMG) was synthesized by vacuum hot [...] Read more.

Cu₆₀Zr₃₀Ti₁₀ metallic glass powder was prepared by mechanically alloying a mixture of pure Cu, Zr, and Ti powders after 5 h of milling. Cu₆₀Zr₃₀Ti₁₀ bulk metallic glass (BMG) was synthesized by vacuum hot pressing the as-milled Cu₆₀Zr₃₀Ti₁₀ metallic glass powder at 746 K in the pressure range of 0.72–1.20 GPa, and the structure was analyzed through X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The pressure could enhance the thermal stability, and prolong the existence, of the amorphous phase inside the Cu₆₀Zr₃₀Ti₁₀ powder. Furthermore, the corrosion behavior of the Cu-based BMG in four corrosive media was studied using a potentiodynamic method. The Cu₆₀Zr₃₀Ti₁₀ BMG exhibited a low corrosion rate and current density in 1 N solutions of H₂SO₄, NaOH, and HNO₃. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results revealed that the formation of Zr- and Ti-rich passive oxide layers provides a high corrosion resistance against 1 N H₂SO₄ and HNO₃ solutions, and the breakdown of the protective film by Cl⁻ attack was responsible for pitting corrosion in a 3 wt % NaCl solution. The formation of oxide films and the nucleation and growth of pitting were analyzed through microstructural investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Alloying)

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10626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kohonen Neural Network Classification for Failure Process of Metallic Organic Coating in Corrosion Environment

by Yuanming Xu, Junshuang Ran and Hao Chen

Metals 2017, 7(4), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040147 - 20 Apr 2017

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4000

Abstract

A deeper insight into the changing states of corrosion during certain exposure circumstances has been investigated by applying Kohonen networks. The Kohonen network has been trained by four sets of samples and tested using another sample. All the sample data were collected during [...] Read more.

A deeper insight into the changing states of corrosion during certain exposure circumstances has been investigated by applying Kohonen networks. The Kohonen network has been trained by four sets of samples and tested using another sample. All the sample data were collected during accelerated corrosion experiments and the network took the changing rate of impedance of each cycle as an input. Compared with traditional classification, the Kohonen artificial network method classifies corrosion process into five sub-processes which is a refinement of three typical corrosion processes. The two newly defined sub-processes of corrosion—namely, pre-middle stage and post-middle stage—were introduced. The EIS data and macro-morphology for both sub-processes were analyzed through accelerated experiments. The classification results of the Kohonen artificial network are highly consistent with the predictions based on impedance magnitude at low frequency, which illustrates that the Kohonen network classification is an effective method for predicting the failure cycles of polymer coatings. Full article

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3793 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Use of Porous Hybrid Materials in a Selective Detection of Lead(II) from Aqueous Solutions: An Electrochemical Study

by Zirlianngura, Diwakar Tiwari, Jeong-Hyub Ha and Seung-Mok Lee

Metals 2017, 7(4), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040124 - 20 Apr 2017

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4732

Abstract

Due to health and pollution concerns of aquatic environments related to the presence of heavy metal toxic ions, the necessity of developing devices able to detect and to monitor such kinds of species has recently gained importance. Carbon paste electrodes (CPEs) a starting [...] Read more.

Due to health and pollution concerns of aquatic environments related to the presence of heavy metal toxic ions, the necessity of developing devices able to detect and to monitor such kinds of species has recently gained importance. Carbon paste electrodes (CPEs) a starting approach to obtain new ion-selective devices by supporting materials like bentonite and/or clay; which become sensitive to lead(II) when they are suitably modified by chemical treatments to obtain different hybrid materials. In this work, two natural clays and three different hybrid materials were produced and then were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to assess their physico-chemical properties. After this stage, the electrochemical characterization of the modified CPEs using hybrid materials was performed by cyclic voltammetry, using the standard Fe(CN)₆⁴⁻/Fe(CN)₆³⁻ redox couple. Subsequently, this study performed electrochemical experiments on lead(II) containing solutions, to test the ability of the examined CPEs to detect this toxic ion present in very low amounts. Lead(II) exhibited a reversible two electron oxidation/reduction behaviour in the cyclic voltammetry analyses and a reasonably good linear behaviour of the current associated with the oxidation peak as a function of its concentration (5.0–40.0 μg/L). The detection limit was found to vary in the range of 3–5 μg/L for the different modified CPEs. The presence of several co-existing ions showed that an interference variation had occurred. These results, therefore, show a restriction of the selectivity of the electrode up to a certain extent in the lead(II) detection. Finally, tap water with spiked lead(II) was analyzed to verify the suitability of the electrodes in the low level detection of lead(II) from real matrix samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metal Determination and Removal)

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9421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of a Submerged Entry Nozzle on Flow and Initial Solidification in a Continuous Casting Bloom Mold with Electromagnetic Stirring

by Qing Fang, Hongwei Ni, Hua Zhang, Bao Wang and Zean Lv

Metals 2017, 7(4), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040146 - 19 Apr 2017

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 6258

Abstract

The melt flow, level fluctuation, temperature field, and solidification behavior coupled with electromagnetic stirring (EMS) effects in the continuous casting mold region of U71Mn steel bloom were numerically analyzed by commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software named ANSYS FLUENT. The effects of submerged [...] Read more.

The melt flow, level fluctuation, temperature field, and solidification behavior coupled with electromagnetic stirring (EMS) effects in the continuous casting mold region of U71Mn steel bloom were numerically analyzed by commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software named ANSYS FLUENT. The effects of submerged entry nozzle (SEN) structures and the installation methods for optimized four-port SEN on the flow pattern, level fluctuation, heat transfer and initial solidification behavior in a bloom mold loaded with EMS were investigated. The aim is to propose a better SEN condition for the big bloom casting of high railway steel. The water simulation experiments were conducted to show the flow characteristics under different SEN conditions and verify the numerical model of flow pattern. The experimental and numerical simulation results showed that the optimized four-port SEN with diagonal installation cannot only improve the flow pattern of the molten steel by alleviating the level fluctuation and reducing the impact pressure to the wall. It is also beneficial for temperature variation at both bloom surface and corner, as well as the local solidified shell thinning phenomena due to the elimination of impingement effect. Full article

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8272 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Role of Severe Plastic Deformation in Suppressing Formation of R Phase and Ni₄Ti₃ Precipitate of NiTi Shape Memory Alloy

by Li Hu, Shuyong Jiang and Yanqiu Zhang

Metals 2017, 7(4), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040145 - 19 Apr 2017

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5743

Abstract

Microstructural evolution of NiTi shape memory alloy (SMA) with a nominal composition of Ni_50.9Ti_49.1 (at %) is investigated on the basis of heat treatment and severe plastic deformation (SPD). As for as-rolled NiTi SMA samples subjected to aging, plenty of [...] Read more.

Microstructural evolution of NiTi shape memory alloy (SMA) with a nominal composition of Ni_50.9Ti_49.1 (at %) is investigated on the basis of heat treatment and severe plastic deformation (SPD). As for as-rolled NiTi SMA samples subjected to aging, plenty of R phases appear in the austenite matrix. In terms of as-rolled NiTi SMA samples undergoing solution treatment and aging, Ni₄Ti₃ precipitates arise in the austenite matrix. In the case of as-rolled NiTi SMA samples subjected to SPD and aging, martensitic twins are observed in the matrix of NiTi SMA. With respect to as-rolled NiTi SMA samples subjected to solution treatment, SPD, and aging, neither R phases nor Ni₄Ti₃ precipitates are observed in the matrix of NiTi SMA. The dislocation networks play an important role in the formation of the R phase. SPD leads to amorphization of NiTi SMA, and in the case of annealing, amorphous NiTi SMA samples are subjected to crystallization. This contributes to suppressing the occurrence of R phase and Ni₄Ti₃ precipitate in NiTi SMA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shape Memory Alloys 2017)

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4440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Low-Sn Zr Cladding Alloys with Excellent Autoclave Corrosion Resistance and High Strength

by Ruiqian Zhang, Beibei Jiang, Chang Pang, Xun Dai, Yongduo Sun, Wei Liao, Qing Wang and Chuang Dong

Metals 2017, 7(4), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040144 - 19 Apr 2017

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5400

Abstract

It is expected that low-Sn Zr alloys are a good candidate to improve the corrosion resistance of Zr cladding alloys in nuclear reactors, presenting excellent corrosion resistance and high strength. The present work developed a new alloy series of Zr-0.25Sn-0.36Fe-0.11Cr-xNb ( [...] Read more.

It is expected that low-Sn Zr alloys are a good candidate to improve the corrosion resistance of Zr cladding alloys in nuclear reactors, presenting excellent corrosion resistance and high strength. The present work developed a new alloy series of Zr-0.25Sn-0.36Fe-0.11Cr-xNb (x = 0.4~1.2 wt %) to investigate the effect of Nb on autoclave corrosion resistance. Alloy ingots were prepared by non-consumable arc-melting, solid-solutioned, and then rolled into thin plates with a thickness of 0.7 mm. It was found that the designed low-Sn Zr alloys exhibit excellent corrosion resistances in three out of pile autoclave environments (distilled water at 633 K/18.6 MPa, 70 ppm LiOH solution at 633 K/18.6 MPa, and superheated water steam at 673 K/10.3 MPa), as demonstrated by the fact of the Zr-0.25Sn-0.36Fe-0.11Cr-0.6Nb alloy shows a corrosion weight gain ΔG = 46.3 mg/dm² and a tensile strength of σ_UTS = 461 MPa following 100 days of exposure in water steam. The strength of the low-Sn Zr alloy with a higher Nb content (x = 1.2 wt %) is enhanced up to 499 MPa, comparable to that of the reference high-Sn N36 alloy (Zr-1.0Sn-1.0Nb-0.25Fe, wt %). Although the strength improvement is at a slight expense of corrosion resistance with the increase of Nb, the corrosion resistance of the high-Nb alloy with x = 1.2 (ΔG = 90.4 mg/dm² for 100-day exposure in the water steam) is still better than that of N36 (ΔG = 103.4 mg/dm²). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zirconium Alloys)

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5513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vickers Indentation Fracture Toughness of Near-Nano and Nanostructured WC-Co Cemented Carbides

by Tamara Aleksandrov Fabijanić, Danko Ćorić, Mateja Šnajdar Musa and Matija Sakoman

Metals 2017, 7(4), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040143 - 19 Apr 2017

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7314

Abstract

In this paper, the fracture toughness K_Ic of near-nano and nanostructured WC-Co cemented carbides by Vickers indentation fracture toughness (VIF) was investigated. The aim was to research the type of cracking occurring in near-nano and nano-grained WC-Co cemented carbides with respect to [...] Read more.

In this paper, the fracture toughness K_Ic of near-nano and nanostructured WC-Co cemented carbides by Vickers indentation fracture toughness (VIF) was investigated. The aim was to research the type of cracking occurring in near-nano and nano-grained WC-Co cemented carbides with respect to the Co content and, consequently, to evaluate the appropriateness of different models for the fracture toughness calculation. The mixtures with different binder content—4, 6, and 9 wt. % Co—were consolidated by sintering in a hydrogen atmosphere. Vickers indentation using a test force of 294 N was used for the determination of fracture toughness. The type of crack that occurred as a consequence of the applied load on the corners of the Vickers indentations was analysed with optical microscopy before and after repolishing the samples. Different crack models, Palmqvist and radial-median, were applied for the calculation of K_Ic. Instrumented indentation testing was used to determine the modulus of elasticity of the consolidated samples. From the research it was found that near-nano and nanostructured cemented carbides with 9 and 6 wt. % Co do not exhibit median cracking and the indenter cracks remain radial in nature, while near-nano and nanostructured cemented carbides with 4 wt. % Co exhibit both radial and median cracking. Accordingly, it was concluded that the critical amount of the binder phase in near-nano and nanostructured WC-Co at which the crack changes its geometry from Palmqvist to radial-median is around 4 wt. % Co. Comparing different models it was found that K_Ic values are not consistent and differ for each method used. Models from Exner crack resistance for the Palmqvist crack showed good agreement. Radial-median crack models showed significant K_Ic deviations for the same testing conditions for all samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cermets and Hardmetals)

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831 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis and Characterization of Nano-Particles of Niobium Pentoxide with Orthorhombic Symmetry

by Miryam Rincón Joya, José José Barba Ortega, Angela Mercedes Raba Paez, José Gadelha Da Silva Filho and Paulo De Tarso Cavalcante Freire

Metals 2017, 7(4), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040142 - 19 Apr 2017

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7108

Abstract

In this work, a set of nanoparticles of Nb₂O₅ nanoparticles were grown by both the Pechini and the sol-gel methods. The amorphous materials were calcined at 650 #xB0;C or at 750 °C. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, luminescence and Raman [...] Read more.

In this work, a set of nanoparticles of Nb₂O₅ nanoparticles were grown by both the Pechini and the sol-gel methods. The amorphous materials were calcined at 650 #xB0;C or at 750 °C. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, luminescence and Raman spectroscopy were used in order to characterize the materials. From the study, it is possible to state that the method of production of nanoparticles, beyond the temperature of synthesis, has a great influence on whether the phase produced is hexagonal or orthorhombic. Additionally, compared to de Sol-gel method, the Pechini method produced samples with smaller particle sizes. The photoluminescence spectra of niobium pentoxide nanostructure materials show that the emission peaks are positioned between 334 to 809 nm and there is a change of intensity which varies depending on the synthesis route used. High pressure Raman spectra at room temperature were obtained from two samples grown by the sol-gel method. Up to 6 GPa, where it is possible to observe the Raman bands, no modification other than the increase of disorder was observed, and this can be associated with a change of phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis and Properties of Bulk Nanostructured Metallic Materials)

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3247 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Dynamic Recovery and Superelasticity of Columnar-Grained Cu–Al–Mn Shape Memory Alloy

by Sheng Xu, Haiyou Huang, Jianxin Xie, Yuta Kimura, Xiao Xu, Toshihiro Omori and Ryosuke Kainuma

Metals 2017, 7(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040141 - 15 Apr 2017

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6022

Abstract

The columnar-grained Cu_71.5Al_17.5Mn₁₁ shape memory alloy was treated by single-pass hot rolling at 900 °C with a thickness reduction of 67.3% followed by immediate water quenching. Dynamic recovery other than discontinuous dynamic recrystallization occurred during the treatment process, [...] Read more.

The columnar-grained Cu_71.5Al_17.5Mn₁₁ shape memory alloy was treated by single-pass hot rolling at 900 °C with a thickness reduction of 67.3% followed by immediate water quenching. Dynamic recovery other than discontinuous dynamic recrystallization occurred during the treatment process, bringing about retained columnar grains with <001> textures, as well as dislocations introduced into the parent matrix. As a result, a large maximum recoverable strain of more than 11% was maintained due to the retained beneficial grain characteristics. The critical stress for inducing martensitic transformation and stress hysteresis were enhanced mainly due to the existence of dislocations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shape Memory Alloys 2017)

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11471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advanced Plasticity Modeling for Ultra-Low-Cycle-Fatigue Simulation of Steel Pipe

by Rongting Li, Philip Eyckens, Daxin E, Jerzy Gawad, Maarten Van Poucke, Steven Cooreman and Albert Van Bael

Metals 2017, 7(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040140 - 14 Apr 2017

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6409

Abstract

Pipelines and piping components may be exposed to extreme loading conditions, for instance earthquakes and hurricanes. In such conditions, they undergo severe plastic strains, which may locally reach the fracture limits due to either monotonic loading or ultra-low cycle fatigue (ULCF). Aiming to [...] Read more.

Pipelines and piping components may be exposed to extreme loading conditions, for instance earthquakes and hurricanes. In such conditions, they undergo severe plastic strains, which may locally reach the fracture limits due to either monotonic loading or ultra-low cycle fatigue (ULCF). Aiming to investigate the failure process and strain evolution of pipes enduring ULCF, a lab-scale ULCF test on an X65 steel pipeline component is simulated with finite element models, and experimental data are used to validate various material modeling assumptions. The paper focuses on plastic material modeling and compares different models for plastic anisotropy in combination with various hardening models, including isotropic, linear kinematic and combined hardening models. Both isotropic and anisotropic assumptions for plastic yielding are considered. As pipes pose difficulty for the measurement of plastic properties in mechanical testing, we calibrate an anisotropic yield locus using advanced multi-scale simulation based on texture measurements. Moreover, the importance of the anisotropy gradient across thickness is studied in detail for this thick-walled pipeline steel. It is found that the usage of a combined hardening model is essential to accurately predict the number of the cycles until failure, as well as the strain evolution during the fatigue test. The advanced hardening modeling featuring kinematic hardening has a substantially higher impact on result accuracy compared to the yield locus assumption for the studied ULCF test. Cyclic tension-compression testing is conducted to calibrate the kinematic hardening models. Additionally, plastic anisotropy and its gradient across the thickness play a notable, yet secondary role. Based on this research, it is advised to focus on improvements in strain hardening characteristics in future developments of pipeline steel with enhanced earthquake resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plastic Forming of Metals)

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8086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tribological Properties of Plough Shares Made of Pearlitic and Martensitic Steels

by Tomasz Stawicki, Beata Białobrzeska and Piotr Kostencki

Metals 2017, 7(4), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040139 - 14 Apr 2017

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5999

Abstract

Tribological properties of ploughshares made of pearlitic and martensitic steels were compared in field tests. Sectional ploughshares consisting of separate share-points and trapezoidal parts were subjected to examinations. Contours of the examined parts were similar, but the thickness of the parts made of [...] Read more.

Tribological properties of ploughshares made of pearlitic and martensitic steels were compared in field tests. Sectional ploughshares consisting of separate share-points and trapezoidal parts were subjected to examinations. Contours of the examined parts were similar, but the thickness of the parts made of pearlitic steel was 1 to 3 mm greater for the share-points and 0.5 to 2 mm greater for the trapezoidal parts. Within the tests, sandy loams, loams, and loamy sands with circa (ca.) 13% humidity were cultivated. A greater intensity of thickness reduction and mass wear of the parts made of pearlitic steel was found, which indicates a lower resistance of this steel to wear in soil. However, contour changes of the share-points and the trapezoidal parts made of pearlitic and martensitic steels were comparable, which was probably influenced by the greater thickness of the parts made of pearlitic steel. The roughness of the rake faces of the parts made of pearlitic steel was greater than that for the parts made of martensitic steel, which can be attributed to lower hardness of the former. The largest differences occurred between maximum peak heights of the roughness profile values (R_p), which indicates stronger ridging in the case of pearlitic steel. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations of the rake faces showed that martensitic steel was subjected to wear mostly by microcutting, but pearlitic steel was principally worn by microcutting and microploughing. During tillage, only one share-point made of pearlitic steel was broken. However, the main disadvantage of these parts was that their bending was related to the lower mechanical strength of pearlitic steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alloy Steels)

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14749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Corrosion Resistance of a Friction-Stir-Welded Joint of Hyper Duplex Stainless Steel

by Jianchun Li, Xinglong Liu, Guoping Li, Peide Han and Wei Liang

Metals 2017, 7(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040138 - 13 Apr 2017

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5881

Abstract

This study investigates the microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of a friction-stir-welded joint of the hyper duplex stainless steel SAF2707. Friction stir welding (FSW) is performed at a tool rotation rate of 400 rpm and a welding speed of 100 mm/min. The [...] Read more.

This study investigates the microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of a friction-stir-welded joint of the hyper duplex stainless steel SAF2707. Friction stir welding (FSW) is performed at a tool rotation rate of 400 rpm and a welding speed of 100 mm/min. The microstructure of the joints is examined using scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Tensile test and fractography are subsequently employed to evaluate the mechanical properties of the joints. Results show that the grain size of the stir zone (SZ) is smaller than that of the base metal (BM). Electron back-scattered diffraction analysis reveals that fine-equiaxed grains form in the SZ because of the dynamic recrystallization during the FSW. These grains become increasingly pronounced in the austenite phase. The tensile specimens consistently fail in the BM, implying that the welded joint is an overmatch to the BM. Moreover, the welded joints consist of finer grains and thus display higher tensile strength than their BMs. Potentiodynamic polarization curves and impedance spectroscopy both demonstrate that the corrosion resistance of the SZ is superior to that of the base material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alloy Steels)

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5004 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Solar Absorptance of WC/Co Solar Selective Absorbing Coating with Multimodal WC Particles

by Xiaobo Wang, Taoyuan Ouyang, Xiaohua Duan, Chengzhu Ke, Xuemin Zhang, Jie Min, Aang Li, Weiyang Guo and Xudong Cheng

Metals 2017, 7(4), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040137 - 13 Apr 2017

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4411

Abstract

One type of multimodal (comprised of nanometer and sub-micrometer WC particles) and two types of conventional (comprised of nanometer and sub-micrometer WC particles, respectively) WC/Co powders were deposited on AISI 304L stainless steel substrates by using high velocity oxygen fuel spraying. The use [...] Read more.

One type of multimodal (comprised of nanometer and sub-micrometer WC particles) and two types of conventional (comprised of nanometer and sub-micrometer WC particles, respectively) WC/Co powders were deposited on AISI 304L stainless steel substrates by using high velocity oxygen fuel spraying. The use of multimodal WC particles was indicated to have a beneficial effect on the solar absorptance (α) of the WC/Co coatings. The α of the multimodal WC coating reached 0.87, which was much higher than what can be achieved by either fine (0.82) or coarse powders (0.80) alone. By microstructural analysis, the enhancement in solar absorptance of the multimodal WC/Co coating was ascribed to the layer of distributed WC particles. During the thermal spraying, the nanostructured WC particles underwent rapid melting for the large specific surface area while the aggregated powders were heated, but not necessarily melted. The molten nano-WC would fill the available pores between the softened and heated aggregates, providing a layered distribution of WC particles for the spray-deposited coating. In this condition, the light-trapping in the multimodal coating will be enhanced due to the efficient light reflection among the multimodal WC particles, which contributes to the enhancement of solar absorptance. Full article

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5983 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Residual Stresses with Time-Independent Cyclic Plasticity in Finite Element Analysis of Welded Joints

by Ruben Lostado Lorza, Marina Corral Bobadilla, María Ángeles Martínez Calvo and Pedro María Villanueva Roldán

Metals 2017, 7(4), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040136 - 13 Apr 2017

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 8774

Abstract

Due to the intense concentration of heat in a reduced area when Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is used to join mechanical components, the regions near the weld bead are subjected to severe thermal cycles. Firstly, the region close to the weld bead [...] Read more.

Due to the intense concentration of heat in a reduced area when Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is used to join mechanical components, the regions near the weld bead are subjected to severe thermal cycles. Firstly, the region close to the weld bead that is heated tends to be in compression and, when it cools, tends to be in tension. According to Pilipenko, the material is exposed to elastic compression and, then, reaching the yield limit, undergoes plastic deformation with the appearance of residual stresses followed by elastic-plastic unloading. This could be considered as a strain-stress cycle. This paper applies plastic-strain-range memorization based on time-independent cyclic plasticity theory for butt joints with single V-groove Finite Element (FE) models that were manufactured by GMAW. The theory combines both the isotropic hardening and the nonlinear kinematic hardening rule (Chaboche model) to reproduce the behavior of cyclic plasticity and thus to obtain the residual stresses in welded joint FE models. As a practical example, the proposed theory is validated by three welded joint specimens that were manufactured with different input parameters of speed, voltage, and current. An agreement between the residual stresses obtained by the FE model proposed and those obtained experimentally by the hole drilling method at different depths demonstrates that the proposed theory could be valid for modelling the residual stresses in welded joints when cyclic plasticity is considered over the range of speed, voltage, and current studied. Full article

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2879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Face Centred Cubic Multi-Component Equiatomic Solid Solutions in the Au-Cu-Ni-Pd-Pt System

by Jens Freudenberger, David Rafaja, David Geissler, Lars Giebeler, Christiane Ullrich, Alexander Kauffmann, Martin Heilmaier and Kornelius Nielsch

Metals 2017, 7(4), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040135 - 12 Apr 2017

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7216

Abstract

A single-phase solid solution is observed in quaternary and quinary alloys obtained from gold, copper, nickel, palladium and platinum. The lattice parameters of the alloys follow the linear rule of mixture when considering the lattice parameters of the elements and their concentration. The [...] Read more.

A single-phase solid solution is observed in quaternary and quinary alloys obtained from gold, copper, nickel, palladium and platinum. The lattice parameters of the alloys follow the linear rule of mixture when considering the lattice parameters of the elements and their concentration. The elements are a priori not homogeneously distributed within the respective alloys resulting in segregations. These segregations cause a large broadening of X-ray lines, which is accessed in the present article. This correlation is visualized by the help of local element mappings utilizing scanning electron microscopy including energy dispersive X-ray analysis and their quantitative analysis. Full article

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10673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Cycle Microscopic Severe Corrosion Fatigue Behavior and Life Prediction of 25CrMo Steel Used in Railway Axles

by Yan-Ling Wang, Xi-Shu Wang, Sheng-Chuan Wu, Hui-Hui Yang and Zhi-Hao Zhang

Metals 2017, 7(4), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040134 - 11 Apr 2017

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5854

Abstract

The effects of environmental media on the corrosion fatigue fracture behavior of 25CrMo steel were investigated. The media include air, and 3.5 wt % and 5.0 wt % NaCl solutions. Experimental results indicate that the media induces the initiation of corrosion fatigue cracks [...] Read more.

The effects of environmental media on the corrosion fatigue fracture behavior of 25CrMo steel were investigated. The media include air, and 3.5 wt % and 5.0 wt % NaCl solutions. Experimental results indicate that the media induces the initiation of corrosion fatigue cracks at multiple sites. The multi-cracking sites cause changes in the crack growth directions, the crack growth rate during the coupling action of the media, and the stress amplitude. The coupling effects are important for engineering applications and research. The probability and predictions of the corrosion fatigue characteristic life can be estimated using the three-parameter Weibull distribution function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue Damage)

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161 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Aluminium Production Process: Challenges and Opportunities

by Houshang Alamdari

Metals 2017, 7(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040133 - 11 Apr 2017

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8412

Abstract

Aluminium, with more than 50 Mt annual production in 2016, is an essential material in modern engineering designs of lightweight structures.[...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the International Committee for Study of Bauxite, Alumina&Aluminium 2015)

4858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Impeller Design on Degasification Kinetics Using the Impeller Injector Technique Assisted by Mathematical Modeling

by Diego Abreu-López, Adrián Amaro-Villeda, Francisco A. Acosta-González, Carlos González-Rivera and Marco A. Ramírez-Argáez

Metals 2017, 7(4), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040132 - 10 Apr 2017

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5642

Abstract

A mathematical model was developed to describe the hydrodynamics of a batch reactor for aluminum degassing utilizing the rotor-injector technique. The mathematical model uses the Eulerian algorithm to represent the two-phase system including the simulation of vortex formation at the free surface, and [...] Read more.

A mathematical model was developed to describe the hydrodynamics of a batch reactor for aluminum degassing utilizing the rotor-injector technique. The mathematical model uses the Eulerian algorithm to represent the two-phase system including the simulation of vortex formation at the free surface, and the use of the RNG k-ε model to account for the turbulence in the system. The model was employed to test the performances of three different impeller designs, two of which are available commercially, while the third one is a new design proposed in previous work. The model simulates the hydrodynamics and consequently helps to explain and connect the performances in terms of degassing kinetics and gas consumption found in physical modeling previously reported. Therefore, the model simulates a water physical model. The model reveals that the new impeller design distributes the bubbles more uniformly throughout the ladle, and exhibits a better-agitated bath, since the transfer of momentum to the fluids is better. Gas is evenly distributed with this design because both phases, gas and liquid, are dragged to the bottom of the ladle as a result of the higher pumping effect in comparison to the commercial designs. Full article

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12086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure, Texture Evolution and Mechanical Properties of VT3-1 Titanium Alloy Processed by Multi-Pass Drawing and Subsequent Isothermal Annealing

by Xiaofei Lei, Limin Dong, Zhiqiang Zhang, Yujing Liu, Yulin Hao, Rui Yang and Lai-Chang Zhang

Metals 2017, 7(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040131 - 10 Apr 2017

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6793

Abstract

Microstructure, texture evolution, and mechanical properties of Ti–6Al–1.5Cr–2.5Mo–0.5Fe–0.3Si (VT3-1) titanium alloy processed by multi-pass drawing and subsequent isothermal annealing were systematically investigated. A fiber-like microstructure is formed after warm drawing at 760 °C with 60% area reduction. After isothermal annealing, the samples deformed [...] Read more.

Microstructure, texture evolution, and mechanical properties of Ti–6Al–1.5Cr–2.5Mo–0.5Fe–0.3Si (VT3-1) titanium alloy processed by multi-pass drawing and subsequent isothermal annealing were systematically investigated. A fiber-like microstructure is formed after warm drawing at 760 °C with 60% area reduction. After isothermal annealing, the samples deformed to different amounts of area reduction show a similar volume fraction (80%) of α phase, while the sample deformed to 60% exhibits a homogeneous microstructure with a larger grain size (5.8 μm). The major texture component of α phase developed during warm drawing is centered at a position of {φ₁ = 10°, φ = 65°, φ₂ = 0°}. The textures for annealed samples are almost along the orientation of original deformation textures and show significant increases in orientation density and volume fraction compared with their deformed states. In addition, for the drawn samples, the ultimate tensile strength increases but the ductility decreases with increasing drawing deformation. A negative slope of yield strength of annealed samples versus grain size (d^−1/2) is found due to the difference between texture softening for as-rolled + annealed state and texture hardening for drawn + annealed state. The mechanical properties of annealed samples are found to be strongly dependent on grain size and texture, resulting in the balance of the strength and ductility. Full article

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6250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heating System for Riser Size Minimizing in Sand Casting Process and Its Experimental Verification

by Chul Kyu Jin, Hyung Yoon Seo and Chung Gil Kang

Metals 2017, 7(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040130 - 8 Apr 2017

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6150

Abstract

In the conventional sand casting process, the size of the riser is made larger than that of the cavity (product part) in order for the molten metal in the riser to solidify at a later stage than the molten metal in the cavity. [...] Read more.

In the conventional sand casting process, the size of the riser is made larger than that of the cavity (product part) in order for the molten metal in the riser to solidify at a later stage than the molten metal in the cavity. In this study, a continuous heating method is developed and applied to the riser, using a cylindrical heater, to minimize the size of the riser. A mold having four cavities is designed for casting turbine housings. The height and diameter of the riser are chosen to be 80 mm and 20 mm, respectively. Solidification analysis results, using the analysis program MAGMA soft for casting simulation, showed that when the heater is implemented, the riser is the last to solidify. However, without the heater, the riser solidifies before the cavity, thus causing the riser to function improperly. Moreover, misruns are generated in the casted product if the heater is not implemented, as opposed to the case of a solid product without any defects, with the heater attached in the riser. Full article

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18120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of FeO on the Reaction between Fe–Al–Ca Alloy and Al₂O₃–CaO–FeO Oxide during Heat Treatment at 1473 K

by Chengsong Liu, Shufeng Yang, Jingshe Li, Hongwei Ni and Xueliang Zhang

Metals 2017, 7(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040129 - 7 Apr 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4988

Abstract

Oxygen diffusion from oxides to an alloy during heat treatment could influence the properties of the alloy and oxides. To clarify the influence of FeO on the solid-state reactions between Al₂O₃–CaO–FeO oxide and Fe–Al–Ca alloy during heat treatment at [...] Read more.

Oxygen diffusion from oxides to an alloy during heat treatment could influence the properties of the alloy and oxides. To clarify the influence of FeO on the solid-state reactions between Al₂O₃–CaO–FeO oxide and Fe–Al–Ca alloy during heat treatment at 1473 K, three diffusion couples with different FeO concentrations in the oxide were produced. The diffusion couples were subjected to several procedures successively including an oxide pre-melting experiment using a confocal scanning laser microscope to obtain good contact between the alloy and oxide, vacuum sealing to protect the specimens from oxidation, heat treatment, and electron probe X-ray microanalysis. The effects of the FeO content in the oxide on the morphology of the interface between the alloy and oxide, change of elements in the alloy, widths of the particle precipitation zone (PPZ) and aluminum-depleted zone (ADZ), and size distribution of the particles in the alloy, were investigated and discussed. Based on the Wagner equation of internal oxidation of metals, a modified dynamic model to calculate the PPZ width was established to help understand the mechanism of the solid-state reactions and element diffusion between the Fe–Al–Ca alloy and Al₂O₃–CaO–FeO oxide with different FeO concentrations. Full article

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4973 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Non-Destructive Technique for the On-Line Quality Control of Green and Baked Anodes †

by Abderrahmane Benzaoui, Duygu Kocaefe, Dipankar Bhattacharyay and Yasar Kocaefe

Metals 2017, 7(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040128 - 6 Apr 2017

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4198

Abstract

Carbon anodes play an important role in the electrolytic production of aluminum. They have a significant economic and environmental impact. Carbon anodes are made of dry aggregates, composed of petroleum coke, recycled rejects, and butts, bound by coal tar pitch. Due to several [...] Read more.

Carbon anodes play an important role in the electrolytic production of aluminum. They have a significant economic and environmental impact. Carbon anodes are made of dry aggregates, composed of petroleum coke, recycled rejects, and butts, bound by coal tar pitch. Due to several factors, defects (cracks/pores) appear in anodes during the fabrication process, affecting their quality. It is thus essential to control the quality of anodes before their use in the electrolysis cell. Current practice for the quality evaluation (visual inspection, core analysis) gives limited information. As an alternative to this practice, electrical resistivity measurements can be used. Electrical resistivity is one of the key indicators for anode quality and its homogeneity. A simple and non-destructive method has been developed for the specific electrical resistivity measurement of anodes (SERMA) for on-line control of anode quality. Various tests have been carried out at both lab scale and industrial scale. In this study, the electrical resistivity distributions in the lab-scale anodes were measured and compared with those of the tomography analysis. The method is able to detect defective anodes even before the baking process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the International Committee for Study of Bauxite, Alumina & Aluminium 2016)

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28143 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Properties of Microarc Oxidation Self-Lubricating Composite Coatings on Aluminum Alloy

by Zhenwei Li and Shichun Di

Metals 2017, 7(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040127 - 5 Apr 2017

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5625

Abstract

Microarc oxidation (MAO) coatings were prepared on 2024-T4 aluminum alloy using pulsed bipolar power supply at different cathode current densities. The MAO ceramic coatings contained many crater-like micropores and a small number of microcracks. After the MAO coatings were formed, the coated samples [...] Read more.

Microarc oxidation (MAO) coatings were prepared on 2024-T4 aluminum alloy using pulsed bipolar power supply at different cathode current densities. The MAO ceramic coatings contained many crater-like micropores and a small number of microcracks. After the MAO coatings were formed, the coated samples were immersed into a water-based Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) dispersion. The micropores and microcracks on the surface of the MAO coatings were filled with PTFE dispersion for preparing MAO self-lubricating composite coatings. The microstructure and properties of MAO coatings and the wear resistance of microarc oxidation self-lubricating composite coatings were analyzed by SEM, laser confocal microscope, X-ray diffractometry (XRD), Vickers hardness test, scratch test and ball-on-disc abrasive tests, respectively. The results revealed that the wear rates of the MAO coatings decreased significantly with an increase in cathode current density. Compared to the MAO coatings, the microarc oxidation self-lubricating composite coatings exhibited a lower friction coefficient and lower wear rates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallic and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles: Novel Approaches)

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6050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Analysis of the Behaviour of Aluminium Alloy EN 6082AW T6 at High Temperature

by Neno Torić, Josip Brnić, Ivica Boko, Marino Brčić, Ian W. Burgess and Ivana Uzelac

Metals 2017, 7(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040126 - 4 Apr 2017

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 8784

Abstract

The paper presents test results for the mechanical and creep properties of European aluminium alloy EN 6082AW T6 at high temperatures. Mechanical properties of the aluminium alloy were determined by means of two types of test: constant stress-rate and stationary creep tests. Mechanical [...] Read more.

The paper presents test results for the mechanical and creep properties of European aluminium alloy EN 6082AW T6 at high temperatures. Mechanical properties of the aluminium alloy were determined by means of two types of test: constant stress-rate and stationary creep tests. Mechanical properties were determined up to a temperature of 350 °C, while the creep tests were conducted within the temperature interval 150–300 °C. The creep tests conducted identified the critical temperature interval for creep development, which represents an important factor when analysing creep behaviour of aluminium structures. This temperature interval was found to be within the range 200–300 °C. Test results for stress at 0.2% strain and modulus of elasticity at different temperatures showed good agreement with the codified values from Eurocode 9 and with other comparable studies. Full article

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18787 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of 2205/AZ31B Laminates Fabricated by Explosive Welding

by Yan Li and Zhisheng Wu

Metals 2017, 7(4), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040125 - 4 Apr 2017

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5413

Abstract

A bimetal composite of 2205 duplex stainless steel and AZ31B magnesium alloy was cladded successfully through the method of explosive welding. The microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of 2205/AZ31B bimetal composite are discussed. The interface of 2205/AZ31B bimetallic composite was a less regular [...] Read more.

A bimetal composite of 2205 duplex stainless steel and AZ31B magnesium alloy was cladded successfully through the method of explosive welding. The microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of 2205/AZ31B bimetal composite are discussed. The interface of 2205/AZ31B bimetallic composite was a less regular wavy morphology with locally melted pockets. Adiabatic shear bands occurred only in the AZ31B side near explosive welding interface. The microstructure observed with EBSD showed a strong refinement near the interface zones. Line scan confirmed that the interface had a short element diffusion zone which would contribute to the metallurgical bonding between 2205 duplex stainless steel and AZ31B magnesium alloy. The value of micro-hardness near the bonding interface of composite plate increased because of work hardening and grain refinement. The tensile shear strength of bonding interface of 2205/AZ31B composite was 105.63 MPa. Tensile strength of 2205/AZ31B composite material was higher than the base AZ31B. There were two abrupt drops in stress in the stress–strain curves of the 2205/AZ31B composite materials. Full article

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4921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Investigations of TiC–Cu Nanocomposites Prepared by Ball Milling and Spark Plasma Sintering

by Oanh Nguyen Thi Hoang, Viet Nguyen Hoang, Ji-Soon Kim and Dina V. Dudina

Metals 2017, 7(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040123 - 3 Apr 2017

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5712

Abstract

In this work, TiC–Cu composites containing 20 and 30 vol % of nano-sized titanium carbide (TiC) particles were prepared by powder metallurgy using copper powders with micrometer-sized and nanometer-sized particles. Mixtures of TiC and Cu powders were ball milled for 10 h and [...] Read more.

In this work, TiC–Cu composites containing 20 and 30 vol % of nano-sized titanium carbide (TiC) particles were prepared by powder metallurgy using copper powders with micrometer-sized and nanometer-sized particles. Mixtures of TiC and Cu powders were ball milled for 10 h and spark plasma sintered at 800–900 °C under an applied pressure of 50 MPa. The relative density of the sintered composites was 95.0%–96.5%. The composites fractured in a ductile mode. The crystallite size of the copper matrix in the composites prepared using the nanometer-sized copper powder was smaller than that in composites prepared using the micrometer-sized copper powder, which was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The hardness of the composites increased as the sintering temperature was increased from 800 to 900 °C. When the TiC content increased from 20 to 30 vol %, the hardness of the composites obtained from the micrometer-sized copper powder and sintered at 900 °C increased from 284 to 315 HV, while in composites obtained from the nanometer-sized copper, the hardness decreased from 347 to 337 HV. Full article

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3390 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pyroelectrically Induced Pyro-Electro-Chemical Catalytic Activity of BaTiO₃ Nanofibers under Room-Temperature Cold–Hot Cycle Excitations

by Yuntao Xia, Yanmin Jia, Weiqi Qian, Xiaoli Xu, Zheng Wu, Zichen Han, Yuanting Hong, Huilin You, Muhammad Ismail, Ge Bai and Liwei Wang

Metals 2017, 7(4), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040122 - 1 Apr 2017

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 7587

Abstract

A pyro-electro-chemical catalytic dye decomposition using lead-free BaTiO₃ nanofibers was realized under room-temperature cold–hot cycle excitation (30–47 °C) with a high Rhodamine B (RhB) decomposition efficiency ~99%, which should be ascribed to the product of pyro-electric effect and electrochemical redox reaction. Furthermore, [...] Read more.

A pyro-electro-chemical catalytic dye decomposition using lead-free BaTiO₃ nanofibers was realized under room-temperature cold–hot cycle excitation (30–47 °C) with a high Rhodamine B (RhB) decomposition efficiency ~99%, which should be ascribed to the product of pyro-electric effect and electrochemical redox reaction. Furthermore, the existence of intermediate product of hydroxyl radical in pyro-electro-chemical catalytic process was also observed. There is no significant decrease in pyro-electro-chemical catalysis activity after being recycled five times. The pyro-electrically induced pyro-electro-chemical catalysis provides a high-efficient, reusable and environmentally friendly technology to remove organic pollutants from water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Materials and Applications)

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