Geosciences

21 pages, 10752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cultural Heritage and Rockfalls: Analysis of Multi-Scale Processes Nearby the Lucus Angitiae Archaeological Site (Central Italy)

by Emiliano Di Luzio, Luca Schilirò and Iolanda Gaudiosi

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120521 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2511

Abstract

Archaeological areas in the mountain region of central Italy can be seriously threatened by geological hazards, and efforts are required to preserve cultural heritage. The Lucus Angitiae is a pre-Roman site located along the western edge of the Fucino Basin, the largest continental [...] Read more.

Archaeological areas in the mountain region of central Italy can be seriously threatened by geological hazards, and efforts are required to preserve cultural heritage. The Lucus Angitiae is a pre-Roman site located along the western edge of the Fucino Basin, the largest continental depression of central Apennines. The carbonate slope overhanging the area is affected by active rockfall processes from two main rock escarpments. In this paper, rockfall assessment was pursued through a 3D kinematic modelling, performed by adopting a probabilistic approach. Specific attention was dedicated to the choice and calibration of the input data, based on field evidence and a literature review. Two different sizes of wedge-shaped rock blocks were identified on rock escarpments, and specific stability analyses were performed. Sensitivity analyses accounting for possible triggering factors, such as water pressure increase and seismic action, were also carried out, together with an investigation of the seismological characteristics of the area. The results of the numerical simulations were used to design effective countermeasures in the framework of a mitigation plan for protection of the archaeological site. Finally, clues of gravity-driven slope deformations at the slope scale were documented, framing the rockfall process in a wider geological scenario. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological and Geomorphological Heritage – Protection versus Geotourism)

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33 pages, 12554 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fracture Spacing Variability and the Distribution of Fracture Patterns in Granitic Geothermal Reservoir: A Case Study in the Noble Hills Range (Death Valley, CA, USA)

by Arezki Chabani, Ghislain Trullenque, Johanne Klee and Béatrice A. Ledésert

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120520 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3276

Abstract

Scanlines constitute a robust method to better understand in 3D the fracture network variability in naturally fractured geothermal reservoirs. This study aims to characterize the spacing variability and the distribution of fracture patterns in a fracture granitic reservoir, and the impact of the [...] Read more.

Scanlines constitute a robust method to better understand in 3D the fracture network variability in naturally fractured geothermal reservoirs. This study aims to characterize the spacing variability and the distribution of fracture patterns in a fracture granitic reservoir, and the impact of the major faults on fracture distribution and fluid circulation. The analogue target named the Noble Hills (NH) range is located in Death Valley (DV, USA). It is considered as an analogue of the geothermal reservoir presently exploited in the Upper Rhine Graben (Soultz-sous-Forêts, eastern of France). The methodology undertaken is based on the analyze of 10 scanlines located in the central part of the NH from fieldwork and virtual (photogrammetric models) data. Our main results reveal: (1) NE/SW, E/W, and NW/SE fracture sets are the most recorded orientations along the virtual scanlines; (2) spacing distribution within NH shows that the clustering depends on fracture orientation; and (3) a strong clustering of the fracture system was highlighted in the highly deformed zones and close to the Southern Death Valley fault zone (SDVFZ) and thrust faults. Furthermore, the fracture patterns were controlled by the structural heritage. Two major components should be considered in reservoir modeling: the deformation gradient and the proximity to the regional major faults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhanced Geothermal Systems and other Deep Geothermal Applications throughout Europe: The MEET Project)

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20 pages, 5493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Controls on the Spatial Distribution of Trace Metal Concentrations along the Bedrock-Dominated South Fork New River, North Carolina

by Jerry R. Miller, Xaviera Watkins, Thomas O'Shea and Cynthia Atterholt

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120519 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3051

Abstract

In marked contrast to alluvial rivers, few studies have examined the physical and geochemical controls on the spatial distribution of toxic trace metals along bedrock channels. This study examined the factors controlling the geographical pattern of selected trace metal (Cu, Cr, and Zn) [...] Read more.

In marked contrast to alluvial rivers, few studies have examined the physical and geochemical controls on the spatial distribution of toxic trace metals along bedrock channels. This study examined the factors controlling the geographical pattern of selected trace metal (Cu, Cr, and Zn) concentrations along the bedrock-dominated channel of the South Fork New River (SFNR). The SFNR is located in the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province of North Carolina, and is representative of many rivers in mountainous terrains that are often subjected to the influx of toxic trace metals from historic and contemporary mining operations. The topography of the SFNR’s channel bed is highly variable and can be subdivided into pool and shallow bedrock reaches. The latter contained localized cascades characterized by topographically higher bedrock ribs that are separated by topographic lows, both of which are oriented oblique to flow. Accumulations of bed sediments are predominantly associated with the traverse bedrock ribs that generate high hydraulic roughness. Except for a few localized zones of enrichment, sediment-associated trace metal concentrations tended to vary within a narrow range of background values over the 36 km study reach. Elevated trace metal concentrations were closely linked to zones of high Fe and Mn concentrations, and were associated with pools located within or immediately downstream of bedrock cascades. The elevated concentrations of the metals appear to be derived from the erosion of lithologic units within the cascades that contain sulfidic layers or zones of mafic mineral enrichment, and which are known to occur in the underlying bedrock. Once eroded, these minerals and/or rock fragments were deposited within low-velocity zones created by the transverse ribs or within downstream pools. The enrichment of trace metals downstream of the cascades may also be due to the formation of Fe and Mn oxyhydroxides as turbulent flows aerate river waters as they traverse the cascades. Chemically reactive fine-grained (<63 µm) sediments had a relatively limited influence on the downstream variations in metal concentrations, presumably because the channel bed sediments are composed primarily of sand-sized and larger particles. Although a principal component analysis (PCA) suggested that reach-scale variations in channel and valley morphology may have partly influenced downstream variations in trace metal concentrations, the geographical patterns were primarily controlled by local geological and geomorphic factors associated with the bedrock cascades. The design of future sampling programs along such coarse-grained, bedrock rivers should consider the significance of these local controls on trace metal storage to effectively characterize and interpret downstream patterns in metal concentrations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Impacts of Mining in Soils and Water)

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29 pages, 14718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

India Indenting Eurasia: A Brief Review and New Data from the Yongping Basin on the SE Tibetan Plateau

by Tiannan Yang, Zhen Yan, Chuandong Xue, Di Xin and Mengmeng Dong

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 518; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120518 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3903

Abstract

Successive indentations of Eurasia by India have led to the Tibet-Himalaya E–W orthogonal collision belt and the SE Tibetan Plateau N–S oblique collision belt along the frontal and eastern edges of the indenter, respectively. The belts exhibit distinctive lithospheric structures and tectonic evolutions. [...] Read more.

Successive indentations of Eurasia by India have led to the Tibet-Himalaya E–W orthogonal collision belt and the SE Tibetan Plateau N–S oblique collision belt along the frontal and eastern edges of the indenter, respectively. The belts exhibit distinctive lithospheric structures and tectonic evolutions. A comprehensive compilation of available geological and geophysical data reveals two sudden tectonic transitions in the early Eocene and the earliest Miocene, respectively, of the tectonic evolution of the orthogonal belt. Synthesizing geological and geochronological data helps us to suggest a NEE–SWW trending, ~450 km-long, ~250 km-wide magmatic zone in SE Tibet, which separates the oblique collision belt (eastern and SE Tibet) into three segments of distinctive seismic structures including the mantle and crust anisotropies. The newly identified Yongping basin is located in the central part of the magmatic zone. Geochronological and thermochronological data demonstrate that (1) this basin and the magmatic zone started to form at ~48 Ma likely due to NNW–SSE lithosphere stretching according to the spatial coincidence of the concentrated mantle-sourced igneous rocks on the surface with the seismic anomalies at depth; and (2) its fills was shortened in the E–W direction since ~23 Ma. These two dates correspond to the onset of the first and second tectonic transitions of the orthogonal collision belt. As such, both the orthogonal and oblique belts share a single time framework of their tectonic evolution. By synthesizing geological and geophysical data of both collision belts, the indenting process can be divided into three stages separated by two tectonic transitions. Continent–continent collision as a piston took place exclusively during the second stage. During the other two stages, the India lithosphere underthrust beneath Eurasia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Tectonic and Paleo-Landscape Evolution of the Tibetan Plateau)

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21 pages, 8448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Specific Length of an Underground Tunnel and the Effects of Rock Block Characteristics on the Inflow Rate

by Alireza Shahbazi, Ali Saeidi, Romain Chesnaux and Alain Rouleau

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120517 - 16 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2691

Abstract

The specific length of a tunnel (STL) and a new analytical model for calculating the block surface area of the rock mass are introduced. First, a method for determining the appropriate length of a tunnel for a numerical simulation is described. The length [...] Read more.

The specific length of a tunnel (STL) and a new analytical model for calculating the block surface area of the rock mass are introduced. First, a method for determining the appropriate length of a tunnel for a numerical simulation is described. The length is then used to examine the correlation between the inflow rate to the tunnel and the block volume, the block surface area, and the fracture intensity (P₃₂) through analytical and numerical modeling. The results indicate that the length of the tunnel should at least be equal to the least common multiple (LCM) of the apparent spacings of the joint sets at the wall of the tunnel to obtain the more reliable and immediate results for the inflow rate to a tunnel that is excavated in a fractured rock mass. A new analytical model was developed to calculate the block surface area and determine the essential joint set parameters, which include the dip, dip direction, and spacing. The determination of the rock block characteristics through numerical modeling requires considering the intact block for calculations. The results indicated that the inflow rate to the tunnel increased with an increase in fracture intensity and a decrease in block volume and surface area. The STL and the analytical model used for calculating the block surface area are validated through numerical simulations with 3DEC software version 7.0. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Early Career Scientists’ (ECS) Contributions to Geosciences)

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17 pages, 17567 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geomorphological Analysis of Xilokastro Fault, Central Gulf of Corinth, Greece

by Sotirios Verroios and Vasiliki Zygouri

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120516 - 16 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2958

Abstract

The Gulf of Corinth is a rapidly opening area with high seismicity associated with extensive building collapses, destruction of cities, and even the deaths of inhabitants. Rapid residential development, especially in the southern part of the Gulf of Corinth, and the construction of [...] Read more.

The Gulf of Corinth is a rapidly opening area with high seismicity associated with extensive building collapses, destruction of cities, and even the deaths of inhabitants. Rapid residential development, especially in the southern part of the Gulf of Corinth, and the construction of crucial technical infrastructures necessitate understanding the activity across crustal-scale faults that host devastating earthquakes. The evolution of landforms affected by fault action is a dominant issue in geological science. In the present study, was selected the 20 km long Xilokastro pure normal fault. In this fault, we apply eight geomorphological indices in footwall catchments that drain perpendicular to its trace. In total, more than 5000 measurements were made in 102 catchments. The determination of geomorphological indices requires the construction of morphological profiles either perpendicular to the faults or perpendicular to the main tributaries of the drainage basins under consideration through the use of the geographical information systems (ArcGIS platform). Τhe application of these indices along catchments draining the Xilokastro fault scarp show high active tectonics. Its high activity is evidenced by the high values of the length-slope index near the fault trace, the low values of the width to height ratio index, the strong asymmetry of the drainage basins, especially in the overlapping zones between its segments, and the elongated shape of the drainage basins. This study supports the idea that the application of a single morphometric index is unable to reflect the distribution of active tectonics across faults, which makes inevitable the systematic comparison of a series of tectonic morphometric indices from which a new combined index emerges (Iat). The Iat classifies the Xilokastro fault in the high degree of activity at a rate of 75% of its length. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morphogenic Faulting: Current Practices and Future Challenges)

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22 pages, 5375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling and Mapping Total and Bioaccessible Arsenic and Lead in Stoke-on-Trent and Their Relationships with Industry

by Joanna Wragg and Mark Cave

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120515 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3076

Abstract

This study was based on a geochemical soil survey of Stoke-on-Trent in the UK of 747 surface soil samples analysed for 53 elements. A subset of 50 of these soil samples were analysed for their bioaccessible As and Pb content using the Unified [...] Read more.

This study was based on a geochemical soil survey of Stoke-on-Trent in the UK of 747 surface soil samples analysed for 53 elements. A subset of 50 of these soil samples were analysed for their bioaccessible As and Pb content using the Unified Barge Method. Random Forest modelling, using the total element data as predictor variables, was used to predict bioaccessible As and Pb for all 747 samples. Random Forest modelling, using inverse distance weighed predictors and bedrock and superficial geology, was also used to map both total and bioaccessible As and Pb on a 400 × 400 spatial prediction grid with a 50 m resolution. The predicted bioaccessible As ranged from ca. 1 to 8 mg/kg and the total As ca. 8 to 45 mg/kg. The bioaccessible Pb and the total Pb both covered the range ca. 16–1200 mg/kg, with the highest values for both forms of Pb showing similar spatial distributions. Predictor variable importance and information on past industry suggest that the source of both of these elements is driven by anthropogenic causes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medical Geology in the Urban Environment)

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19 pages, 2886 KiB

Open AccessReview

Assessing the Frequency of Floods in Ice-Covered Rivers under a Changing Climate: Review of Methodology

by Spyros Beltaos

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 514; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120514 - 14 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2704

Abstract

Ice-influenced hydrologic and hydrodynamic processes often cause floods in cold regions of the globe. These floods are typically associated with ice jams and can have negative socio-economic impacts, while their impacts on riverine ecosystems can be both detrimental and beneficial. Several methods have [...] Read more.

Ice-influenced hydrologic and hydrodynamic processes often cause floods in cold regions of the globe. These floods are typically associated with ice jams and can have negative socio-economic impacts, while their impacts on riverine ecosystems can be both detrimental and beneficial. Several methods have been proposed for constructing frequency distributions of ice-influenced annual peak stages where historical data are scarce, or for estimating future frequencies under different climate change scenarios. Such methods rely on historical discharge data, which are generally easier to obtain than peak stages. Future discharges can be simulated via hydrological models, driven by climate-model output. Binary sequences of historical flood/no-flood occurrences have been studied using logistic regression on physics-based explanatory variables or exclusively weather-controlled proxies, bypassing the hydrological modelling step in climate change projections. Herein, background material on relevant river ice processes is presented first, followed by descriptions of various proposed methods to quantify flood risk and assess their advantages and disadvantages. Discharge-based methods are more rigorous; however, projections of future flood risk can benefit from improved hydrological simulations of winter and spring discharges. The more convenient proxy-based regressions may not adequately reflect the controlling physics-based variables, while extrapolation of regression results to altered climatic conditions entails further uncertainty. Full article

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34 pages, 9679 KiB

Open AccessReview

Development Environments and Factors of Subsidence Dolines

by Márton Veress

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120513 - 14 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3565

Abstract

This study describes the development environments of subsidence dolines based on literary data (development environments create favorable conditions for the local denudation of superficial deposit and thus, for the development of depressions). Development environments are the inclination of the bearing surface, the secondary [...] Read more.

This study describes the development environments of subsidence dolines based on literary data (development environments create favorable conditions for the local denudation of superficial deposit and thus, for the development of depressions). Development environments are the inclination of the bearing surface, the secondary porosity of the bedrock, the characteristics of the cover, water influx into the cover, karstwater and groundwater, melting permafrost, and anthropogenic activity. These may become optimal when controlled by various geological, geomorphological, and climatic factors. Development environments may be qualitative (there is doline development in case of its presence) and quantitative (doline development occurs in case of suitable quantitative values). The development environment groups of subsidence dolines are environment groups independent of water level, environment groups dependent on water level, and anthropogenic environment groups. In the case of an environment group independent of water level, surface morphology, cover characteristics, geomorphic evolution, and water supply are determining, while in case of an environment group dependent of water level, subsurface water level and its fluctuations and the characteristics of rainfalls interrupting dry seasons are crucial. Anthropogenic impacts mainly affect doline development through water balance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Karst Unsaturated Zone)

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28 pages, 30766 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inventory and Assessment of the Geomorphosites in Central Cyclades, Greece: The Case of Paros and Naxos Islands

by Niki Evelpidou, Anna Karkani, Maria Tzouxanioti, Evangelos Spyrou, Alexandros Petropoulos and Lida Lakidi

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 512; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120512 - 14 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3141

Abstract

The Cycladic landscape is characterized by landforms of natural beauty and rarity. Landforms resulting from differential erosion, weathering, tectonics, drainage network, sea level changes, and depositional processes can contribute to the development of geotourism in the area. This can be achieved by supporting [...] Read more.

The Cycladic landscape is characterized by landforms of natural beauty and rarity. Landforms resulting from differential erosion, weathering, tectonics, drainage network, sea level changes, and depositional processes can contribute to the development of geotourism in the area. This can be achieved by supporting conservation, protection and promotion of the geo-environment and nature, educating students, residents, and visitors. The aim of this work is to develop an inventory of the main geomorphosites of Paros and Naxos islands by assessing their scientific and additional values, using qualitative and quantitative criteria. Our results show that, besides the high scientific interest of the 75 geomorphosites, most are also characterized by a high ecological value and can potentially lead to a significant increase in the islands’ tourism. The results of this work aim at raise awareness on the geomorphological heritage of central Cyclades and provide a basis for their promotion, protection, and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoheritage and Geotourism Resources: Education, Recreation, Sustainability)

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16 pages, 1937 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effective Continuum Approximations for Permeability in Brown-Coal and Other Large-Scale Fractured Media

by Roger Hu and Stuart D. C. Walsh

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120511 - 14 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2281

Abstract

The stability of open-pit brown-coal mines is affected by the manner in which water is transmitted or retained within their slopes. This in turn is a function of the in-situ fracture network at those mines. Fracture networks in real mines exhibit significant degrees [...] Read more.

The stability of open-pit brown-coal mines is affected by the manner in which water is transmitted or retained within their slopes. This in turn is a function of the in-situ fracture network at those mines. Fracture networks in real mines exhibit significant degrees of heterogeneity; encompassing a wide range of apertures, inter-fracture separations, and orientations. While each of these factors plays a role in determining fluid movement, over the scale of a mine it is often impractical to precisely measure, let alone simulate, the behaviour of each fracture. Accordingly, effective continuum models capable of representing the bulk effects of the fracture network are needed to understand the movement of fluid within these slopes. This article presents an analysis of the fracture distribution within the slopes of a brown coal mine and outlines a model to capture the effects on the bulk permeability. A stress-dependent effective-fracture-permeability model is introduced that captures the effects of the fracture apertures, spacing, and orientation. We discuss how this model captures the fracture heterogeneity and the effects of changing stress conditions on fluid flow. The fracture network data and the results from the effective permeability model demonstrate that in many cases slope permeability is dominated by highly permeable but low-probability fractures. These results highlight the need for models capable of capturing the effects of heterogeneity and uncertainty on the slope behaviour. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Early Career Scientists’ (ECS) Contributions to Geosciences)

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18 pages, 5356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Site Amplification during Strong Earthquakes Investigated by Vertical Array Records

by Takaji Kokusho and Tomohiro Ishizawa

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120510 - 14 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3008

Abstract

A number of vertical array records during eight destructive earthquakes in Japan are utilized, after discussing criteria for desirable requirements of vertical arrays, to formulate seismic amplification between ground surface and outcrop base for seismic zonation. A correlation between peak spectrum amplification and [...] Read more.

A number of vertical array records during eight destructive earthquakes in Japan are utilized, after discussing criteria for desirable requirements of vertical arrays, to formulate seismic amplification between ground surface and outcrop base for seismic zonation. A correlation between peak spectrum amplification and V_s (S-wave velocity) ratio (base V_s/surface V_s) was found to clearly improve by using V_s in an equivalent surface layer wherein predominant frequency or first peak is exerted, though the currently used average V_s in top 30 m is also meaningful, correlating positively with the amplification. We also found that soil nonlinearity during strong earthquakes has only a marginal effect even in soft soil sites on the amplification between surface and outcrop base except for ultimate soil liquefaction failure, while strong nonlinearity clearly appears in the vertical array amplification between surface and downhole base. Its theoretical basis has been explained by a simple study on a two-layered system in terms of radiation damping and strain-dependent equivalent nonlinearity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Engineering Analysis of Near-Source Strong Ground Motion)

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4 pages, 167 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial of Special Issue “Quaternary Sedimentary Successions”

by Francesco Sciuto

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120509 - 12 Dec 2021

Viewed by 1682

Abstract

The Quaternary is the chronostratigraphic range spanning from 2.58 Ma to the present [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quaternary Sedimentary Successions)

12 pages, 3206 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laboratory Measurements to Image Endobenthos and Bioturbation with a High-Frequency 3D Seismic Lander

by Inken Schulze, Dennis Wilken, Michael L. Zettler, Mayya Gogina, Mischa Schönke and Peter Feldens

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120508 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2669

Abstract

The presented 3D seismic system operates three transducers (130 kHz) from a stationary lander and allows non-destructive imaging of small-scale objects within the top decimeters of silty sediments, covering a surface area of 0.2 m². In laboratory experiments, samples such as [...] Read more.

The presented 3D seismic system operates three transducers (130 kHz) from a stationary lander and allows non-destructive imaging of small-scale objects within the top decimeters of silty sediments, covering a surface area of 0.2 m². In laboratory experiments, samples such as shells, stones, and gummy worms of varied sizes (down to approx. 1 cm diameter) could be located in the 3D seismic cube to a depth of more than 20 cm and differentiated by a reflected amplitude intensity and spatial orientation. In addition, simulated bioturbation structures could be imaged. In a practical application, the system allows to determine the abundance of endobenthos and its dynamic in muddy deposits in-situ and thus identify the intensity of local bioturbation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Early Career Scientists’ (ECS) Contributions to Geosciences)

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23 pages, 6960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Lithological Modelling to Groundwater Modelling: A Case Study in the Tiber River Alluvial Valley

by Cristina Di Salvo, Marco Mancini, Massimiliano Moscatelli, Maurizio Simionato, Gian Paolo Cavinato, Michele Dimasi and Francesco Stigliano

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120507 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3021

Abstract

This study presents the results of a research project financed by the Lazio Regional Government. The research focused on defining an integrated model of recent alluvial deposits in the Tiber River. To achieve this objective, geological boreholes were made to monitor the aquifer [...] Read more.

This study presents the results of a research project financed by the Lazio Regional Government. The research focused on defining an integrated model of recent alluvial deposits in the Tiber River. To achieve this objective, geological boreholes were made to monitor the aquifer and in situ and laboratory tests were carried out. The data obtained were used to detail stratigraphic aspects and improve the comprehension of water circulation beneath the recent alluvial deposits of the Tiber River in the urban area of Rome, between the Ponte Milvio bridge and the Tiber Island. The stratigraphic intervals recognised in the boreholes were parameterised based on their litho-technical characteristics. The new data acquired, and integrated with existing data in the database of Institute of Environmental Geology and Geoengineering of the Italian National Research Council, made it possible to produce a three-dimensional model of the lithologies in the study area. The model of the subsoil, simplified for applied reasons, was described in hydrostratigraphic terms: three different lithotypes were subjected to piezometric levels monitoring. Finally, the research generated a numerical hydrological model in a steady state. In general, this study demonstrates how a numerical hydrogeological model calibrated by piezometric monitoring data can support the construction of a geological model, discarding or confirming certain hypotheses and suggesting other means of reconstructing sedimentary bodies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Early Career Scientists’ (ECS) Contributions to Geosciences)

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19 pages, 23707 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quaternary Coastal Landscape Evolution and Sea-Level Rise: An Example from South-East Sicily

by Salvatore Distefano, Fabiano Gamberi, Laura Borzì and Agata Di Stefano

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120506 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2598

Abstract

Coastal depositional environments are the site of complex interactions between continental and marine processes. Barrier islands are highly dynamic coastal systems, typical of these transitional environments, and are affected by sea level changes and the accumulation of transgressive deposits with the landwards migration [...] Read more.

Coastal depositional environments are the site of complex interactions between continental and marine processes. Barrier islands are highly dynamic coastal systems, typical of these transitional environments, and are affected by sea level changes and the accumulation of transgressive deposits with the landwards migration of the coast. The offshore of Marzamemi (Syracuse Province, Sicily), in the south-eastern portion of the Hyblean foreland, represents an excellent site for the study of transgressive deposits and their connection with the sea-level changes. The available dataset consisted of new high-resolution bathymetry (Multibeam), whose description and interpretation through a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was integrated with a grid of eighteen seismic profiles (SPARKER). In the investigated bathymetric range, from about −5 m to −60 m, a sensibly different morphological setting between the northern and southern sectors was evident. Within the whole study area, three bathymetric contours (−45 m, −35 m and −20 m) were identified and assumed as the markers of the main locations of the paleo-coastlines during the recent changes in the sea level. Along the northern sector, three submerged barrier-lagoon systems developed on a calcarenite substratum, marking important steps of the Late Quaternary sea-level rise. They coexisted with numerous karst forms (poljes and dolines). In the southern sector the transgressive environmental evolution was significantly different and submerged lagoons did not form. Here the outcropping calcarenite substratum was affected by the development of paleo-rivers and karsts structures, a tract in common along with many Mediterranean carbonate coastal areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quaternary Stratigraphy of Alluvial and Coastal Plains: Recent Advances and Potential Applications)

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26 pages, 5808 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Garnet Chemical Zoning Based Thermobarometry: Method Evaluation and Applications in the Menderes Massif, Western Turkey

by Thomas M. Etzel and Elizabeth J. Catlos

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120505 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3095

Abstract

The garnet chemical zoning method (GZM) is a reliable thermodynamic approach for forward modeling pressure-temperature (P-T) paths using observed garnet and bulk rock compositions. However, intracrystalline diffusion is known to compromise the integrity of GZM modeled garnet-growth P-T paths. For this reason, extracting [...] Read more.

The garnet chemical zoning method (GZM) is a reliable thermodynamic approach for forward modeling pressure-temperature (P-T) paths using observed garnet and bulk rock compositions. However, intracrystalline diffusion is known to compromise the integrity of GZM modeled garnet-growth P-T paths. For this reason, extracting reliable metamorphic estimates from garnet-bearing schists in the Central Menderes Massif (CMM), western Turkey, has been difficult. To evaluate the impact of diffusion on GZM, we simulate garnet growth and diffusion for an average metapelite using the program Theria_G. Modeled garnet compositions from four simulations are used to estimate P-T conditions and paths by GZM, which are compared against Theria_G specified P-T-t trajectories. Factors influencing results are heating/cooling rate, grain size, and peak T. At a maximum T of 610 °C, both undiffused and diffused garnet compositions returned estimates comparable to prescribed conditions regardless of heating/cooling rate. Diffused profiles from simulations reaching a maximum T of 670 °C also reproduced prescribed P-T paths if tectonism occurred at high heating/cooling rates (50 °C/my). From these insights and additional Theria_G simulation-derived observations for CMM garnets, we deduce that metamorphism in the region exceeded 650 °C and achieved a maximum burial P between 8–10 kbar prior to Cenozoic exhumation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Early Career Scientists’ (ECS) Contributions to Geosciences)

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21 pages, 9189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic Expression of Hydrothermal Systems Hosted by Submarine Calderas in Subduction Settings: Examples from the Palinuro and Brothers Volcanoes

by Luca Cocchi, Fabio Caratori Tontini, Filippo Muccini and Cornel E. J. de Ronde

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120504 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3044

Abstract

Volcanism is the most widespread expression of cyclic processes of formation and/or destruction that shape the Earth’s surface. Calderas are morphological depressions resulting from the collapse of a magma chamber following large eruptions and are commonly found in subduction-related tectono-magmatic regimes, such as [...] Read more.

Volcanism is the most widespread expression of cyclic processes of formation and/or destruction that shape the Earth’s surface. Calderas are morphological depressions resulting from the collapse of a magma chamber following large eruptions and are commonly found in subduction-related tectono-magmatic regimes, such as arc and back-arc settings. Some of the most impressive examples of seafloor hydrothermal venting occur within submarine calderas. Here, we show the results of magnetic investigations at two hydrothermally active submarine calderas, i.e., Palinuro Seamount in the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy, and Brothers volcano of the Kermadec arc, New Zealand. These volcanoes occur in different geodynamic settings but show similarities in the development of their hydrothermal systems, both of which are hosted within calderas. We present a new integrated model based on morphological, geological and magnetic data for the Palinuro caldera, and we compare this with the well-established model of Brothers caldera, highlighting the differences and common features in the geophysical expressions of both hydrothermal systems. For consistency with the results at Brothers volcano, we build a model of demagnetised areas associated with hydrothermal alteration derived from 3D inversion of magnetic data. Both these models for Brothers and Palinuro show that hydrothermal up-flow zones are strongly controlled by caldera structures which provide large-scale permeability pathways, favouring circulation of the hydrothermal fluids at depth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Present and Past Submarine Volcanic Activity)

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21 pages, 25790 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Potential Role of Geological Context on Groundwater Quality: A Case Study of the Grenville and St. Lawrence Platform Geological Provinces in Quebec, Canada

by Roxane Tremblay, Julien Walter, Romain Chesnaux and Lamine Boumaiza

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120503 - 9 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3230

Abstract

The hydrogeochemical study of the Lanaudière and Eastern Mauricie regions (Canada) demonstrates that trace elements appear to be better tracers of geological influence on groundwater chemistry than major elements. Isotopic ratios and the similar chemical composition of groundwater suggest that the physicochemical parameters [...] Read more.

The hydrogeochemical study of the Lanaudière and Eastern Mauricie regions (Canada) demonstrates that trace elements appear to be better tracers of geological influence on groundwater chemistry than major elements. Isotopic ratios and the similar chemical composition of groundwater suggest that the physicochemical parameters of groundwater have a greater effect on hydrogeochemical mechanisms than the immediate geological environment The results allow us to propose a conceptual model of groundwater geochemical evolution with the aim to guide the protection and sustainable management of regional groundwater resources in the Lanaudière and Eastern Mauricie regions. These regions were selected because of their location at the boundary of the Grenville and St. Lawrence Platform geological provinces, representing two distinct geological contexts (Precambrian crystalline rocks and Paleozoic sedimentary rocks). Regional-scale hydrogeochemical and isotopic groundwater characterization was carried out to identify the role of the differences in regional geology on groundwater quality. Our analyses included major and trace elements, stable isotopes, and multivariate statistics. Similar processes are at the origin of dissolved major chemical elements and suggest that soluble minerals common to both geological provinces control groundwater chemistry. If differences exist, they are due to the hydrogeological conditions of the samples, such as residence time or groundwater entrapment at the time of the postglacial marine incursion of the Champlain Sea, rather than the geological context. Some differences, sometimes significant, were observed for some minor elements (F⁻, Mn²⁺, H₂S), which implies a more comprehensive knowledge of the chemistry of the stratigraphic units within the Lanaudière and Eastern Mauricie aquifers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Early Career Scientists’ (ECS) Contributions to Geosciences)

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15 pages, 3501 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soultz-sous-Forêts Geothermal Reservoir: Structural Model Update and Thermo-Hydraulic Numerical Simulations Based on Three Years of Operation Data

by Clément Baujard, Pauline Rolin, Éléonore Dalmais, Régis Hehn and Albert Genter

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120502 - 9 Dec 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3982

Abstract

The geothermal powerplant of Soultz-sous-Forêts (France) is investigating the possibility of producing more energy with the same infrastructure by reinjecting the geothermal fluid at lower temperatures. Indeed, during the operation of the powerplant, the geothermal fluid is currently reinjected at 60–70 °C in [...] Read more.

The geothermal powerplant of Soultz-sous-Forêts (France) is investigating the possibility of producing more energy with the same infrastructure by reinjecting the geothermal fluid at lower temperatures. Indeed, during the operation of the powerplant, the geothermal fluid is currently reinjected at 60–70 °C in a deep fractured granite reservoir, and the MEET project aims to test its reinjection at 40 °C. A 3D hydrothermal study was performed in order to evaluate the spreading of the thermal front during colder reinjection and its impact on the production temperature. In the first step, a 3D structural model at fault scale was created, integrating pre-existing models from 2D vintage seismic profiles, vertical seismic profiles, seismic cloud structure and borehole image logs calibrated with well data. This geometrical model was then adapted to be able to run hydrothermal simulation. In the third step, a 3D hydrothermal model was built based on the structural model. After calibration, the effect of colder reinjection on the production temperature was calculated. The results show that a decrease of 10 °C in the injection temperature leads to a drop in the production temperature of 2 °C after 2 years, reaching 3 °C after 25 years of operation. Lastly, the accuracy of the structural model on which the simulations are based is discussed and an update of the structural model is proposed in order to better reproduce the observations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhanced Geothermal Systems and other Deep Geothermal Applications throughout Europe: The MEET Project)

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27 pages, 6506 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Mohr Diagrams to Predict Fracturing in a Potential Geothermal Reservoir

by D.C.P. Peacock, David J. Sanderson and Bernd Leiss

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120501 - 9 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5489

Abstract

Inferences have to be made about likely structures and their effects on fluid flow in a geothermal reservoir at the pre-drilling stage. Simple mechanical modelling, using reasonable ranges of values for rock properties, stresses and fluid pressures, is used here to predict the [...] Read more.

Inferences have to be made about likely structures and their effects on fluid flow in a geothermal reservoir at the pre-drilling stage. Simple mechanical modelling, using reasonable ranges of values for rock properties, stresses and fluid pressures, is used here to predict the range of possible structures that are likely to exist in the sub-surface and that may be generated during stimulation of a potential geothermal reservoir. In particular, Mohr diagrams are used to show under what fluid pressures and stresses different types and orientations of fractures are likely to be reactivated or generated. The approach enables the effects of parameters to be modelled individually, and for the types and orientations of fractures to be considered. This modelling is useful for helping geoscientists consider, model, and predict the ranges of mechanical properties of rock, stresses, fluid pressures, and the resultant fractures that are likely to occur in the sub-surface. Here, the modelling is applied to folded and thrusted greywackes and slates, which are planned to be developed as an Enhanced Geothermal System beneath Göttingen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhanced Geothermal Systems and other Deep Geothermal Applications throughout Europe: The MEET Project)

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23 pages, 10176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Petrophysical Properties of Porous Rocks Using NMR, Micro-CT, and Fluid Flow Simulations

by Apoorv Jyoti and Ralf R. Haese

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120500 - 8 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3533

Abstract

Micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) is increasingly utilized to image the pore network and to derive petrophysical properties in combination with modelling software. The effect of micro-CT image resolution and size on the accuracy of the derived petrophysical properties is addressed in this study using [...] Read more.

Micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) is increasingly utilized to image the pore network and to derive petrophysical properties in combination with modelling software. The effect of micro-CT image resolution and size on the accuracy of the derived petrophysical properties is addressed in this study using a relatively homogenous sandstone and a heterogenous, highly porous bioclastic limestone. Standard laboratory procedures including NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) analysis, micro-CT analysis at different image resolutions and sizes and pore-scale flow simulations were used to determine and compare petrophysical properties. NMR-derived pore-size distribution (PSD) was comparable to the micro-CT-derived PSD at a resolution of 7 µm for both the rock types. Porosity was higher using the water saturation method as compared to the NMR method in both rocks. The resolution did not show a significant effect on the porosity of the homogeneous sandstone, but porosity in the heterogeneous limestone varies depending on the location of the sub-sample. The transport regime in the sandstone was derived by simulations and changed with the resolution of the micro-CT image. The transport regime in the sandstone was advection-dominated at higher image resolution and diffusion-dominated when using a lower image resolution. In contrast, advection was the dominant transport regime for the limestone based on simulations using higher and lower image resolutions. Simulation-derived permeability for a 400 Voxel³ image at 7 µm resolution in the Berea sandstone matched laboratory results, although local heterogeneity within the rock plays an integral role in the permeability estimation within the sub-sampled images. The simulation-derived permeability was highly variable in the Mount Gambier limestone depending on the image size and resolution with the closest value to a laboratory result simulated with an image resolution of 2.5 µm and a size of 300 Voxel³. Overall, the study demonstrates the need to decide on micro-CT parameters depending on the type of petrophysical property of interest and the degree of heterogeneity within the rock types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

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36 pages, 14596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Basic Role of Extrusion Processes in the Late Cenozoic Evolution of the Western and Central Mediterranean Belts

by Marcello Viti, Enzo Mantovani, Daniele Babbucci, Caterina Tamburelli, Marcello Caggiati and Alberto Riva

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120499 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4284

Abstract

Tectonic activity in the Mediterranean area (involving migrations of old orogenic belts, formation of basins and building of orogenic systems) has been determined by the convergence of the confining plates (Nubia, Arabia and Eurasia). Such convergence has been mainly accommodated by the consumption [...] Read more.

Tectonic activity in the Mediterranean area (involving migrations of old orogenic belts, formation of basins and building of orogenic systems) has been determined by the convergence of the confining plates (Nubia, Arabia and Eurasia). Such convergence has been mainly accommodated by the consumption of oceanic and thinned continental domains, triggered by the lateral escapes of orogenic wedges. Here, we argue that the implications of the above basic concepts can allow plausible explanations for the very complex time-space distribution of tectonic processes in the study area, with particular regard to the development of Trench-Arc-Back Arc systems. In the late Oligocene and lower–middle Miocene, the consumption of the eastern Alpine Tethys oceanic domain was caused by the eastward to SE ward migration/bending of the Alpine–Iberian belt, driven by the Nubia–Eurasia convergence. The crustal stretching that developed in the wake of that migrating Arc led to formation of the Balearic basin, whereas accretionary activity along the trench zone formed the Apennine belt. Since the collision of the Anatolian–Aegean–Pelagonian system (extruding westward in response to the indentation of the Arabian promontory) with the Nubia-Adriatic continental domain, around the late Miocene–early Pliocene, the tectonic setting in the central Mediterranean area underwent a major reorganization, aimed at activating a less resisted shortening pattern, which led to the consumption of the remnant oceanic and thinned continental domains in the central Mediterranean area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evolution of Modern and Ancient Orogenic Belts)

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23 pages, 109705 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Corrosion Resistance Properties of Heat Exchanger Metals in Two Different Geothermal Environments

by Svava Davíðsdóttir, Baldur Geir Gunnarsson, Kjartan Björgvin Kristjánsson, Béatrice A. Ledésert and Dagur Ingi Ólafsson

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 498; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120498 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3666

Abstract

Geothermal fluids harnessed for electricity production are generally corrosive because of their interaction with the underground. To ensure the longevity and sustainability of geothermal Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) powerplants, the choice of heat exchanger material is essential. The performance of heat exchangers is [...] Read more.

Geothermal fluids harnessed for electricity production are generally corrosive because of their interaction with the underground. To ensure the longevity and sustainability of geothermal Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) powerplants, the choice of heat exchanger material is essential. The performance of heat exchangers is affected by corrosion and scaling due to the geothermal fluids, causing regular cleaning, part replacement, and in the worst cases, extensive repair work. The properties of geothermal fluids vary between geothermal settings and even within geothermal sites. Differences in exposure conditions require different material selection considerations, where factors such as cost, and material efficiency are important to consider. This work studies in-situ geothermal exposure testing of four metals at two geothermal locations, in different geological settings. Four corrosion-resistant materials were exposed for one month at Reykjanes powerplant in Iceland and four months at Chaunoy oil field in France as material candidates for heat exchangers. The tested alloys were analysed for corrosion with macro- and microscopic techniques using optical and electron microscopes, which give an indication of the different frequencies of repairs and replacement. Inconel 625 showed no effects at Reykjanes and cracks at Chaunoy. The others (316L, 254SMO, and titanium grade 2) showed either corrosion or erosion traces at both sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhanced Geothermal Systems and other Deep Geothermal Applications throughout Europe: The MEET Project)

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9 pages, 879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of the Tsunami Generated by a Potential Submarine Landslide in La Palma (Canary Islands) after the September 2021 Cumbre Vieja Eruption

by Raúl Periáñez

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120497 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4637

Abstract

Cumbre Vieja volcano, located in La Palma Island (Canary Islands, Spain), erupted on 19 September 2021. Some papers have been published in the past in which the tsunamis generated by a potential massive landslide due to a collapse of one of the volcano [...] Read more.

Cumbre Vieja volcano, located in La Palma Island (Canary Islands, Spain), erupted on 19 September 2021. Some papers have been published in the past in which the tsunamis generated by a potential massive landslide due to a collapse of one of the volcano flanks are investigated. However, a potential slide of the lava flow down the island slope has not been considered yet. A numerical model has been applied to simulate the propagation of the tsunami generated by such slide and to assess its consequences in the near field (Canary Islands and west coast of Africa). The model provides maps of maximum wave heights and arrival times of the tsunami, as well as time series of water surface elevation at several selected locations. Since the volume involved in such potential slide is a priori not known, several values were tested and their effects compared. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Tsunamis: From the Scientific Challenges to the Social Impact)

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2 pages, 154 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial of Special Issue “Detecting Geospace Perturbations Caused by Earth”

by Georgios Balasis and Angelo De Santis

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120496 - 6 Dec 2021

Viewed by 1994

Abstract

A systematic multiparametric and multiplatform approach to detect and study geo-space perturbations attributed to preparation processes related to natural hazards is fundamental in order to obtain useful insights on a series of complex dynamic phenomena of the Earth system, namely, earthquakes, volcanic and [...] Read more.

A systematic multiparametric and multiplatform approach to detect and study geo-space perturbations attributed to preparation processes related to natural hazards is fundamental in order to obtain useful insights on a series of complex dynamic phenomena of the Earth system, namely, earthquakes, volcanic and Saharan dust events, as well as geomagnetic disturbances [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detecting Geospace Perturbations Caused by Earth)

25 pages, 1933 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Landslide Susceptibility Mapping in the Vrancea-Buzău Seismic Region, Southeast Romania

by Hasnaa Harmouzi, Romy Schlögel, Marta Jurchescu and Hans-Balder Havenith

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120495 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2834

Abstract

This study presents the results of a landslide susceptibility analysis applied to the Vrancea-Buzău seismogenic region in the Carpathian Mountains, Romania. The target area is affected by a large diversity of landslide processes. Slopes are made-up of various types of rocks, climatic conditions [...] Read more.

This study presents the results of a landslide susceptibility analysis applied to the Vrancea-Buzău seismogenic region in the Carpathian Mountains, Romania. The target area is affected by a large diversity of landslide processes. Slopes are made-up of various types of rocks, climatic conditions can be classified as wet, and the area is a seismically active one. All this contributes to the observed high landslide hazard. The paper analyses the spatial component of the landslide hazard affecting the target area, the regional landslide susceptibility. First, an existing landslide inventory was completed to cover a wider area for the landslide susceptibility analysis. Second, two types of methods are applied, a purely statistical technique, based on correlations between landslide occurrence and local conditions, as well as the simplified spatial process-based Newmark Displacement analysis. Landslide susceptibility maps have been produced by applying both methods, the second one also allowing us to simulate different scenarios, based on various soil saturation rates and seismic inputs. Furthermore, landslide susceptibility was computed both for the landslide source and runout zones—the first providing information about areas where landslides are preferentially triggered and the second indicating where landslides preferentially move along the slope and accumulate. The analysis showed that any of the different methods applied produces reliable maps of landslide susceptibility. However, uncertainties were also outlined as validation is insufficient, especially in the northern area, where only a few landslides could be mapped due to the intense vegetation cover. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Multi-Hazard Mitigation from Source to Satellite: Applications and Technological Development)

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19 pages, 6234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Beach Deployment of a Low-Cost GNSS Buoy for Determining Sea-Level and Wave Characteristics

by Philip J. Knight, Cai O. Bird, Alex Sinclair, Jonathan Higham and Andrew J. Plater

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120494 - 1 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3267

Abstract

Spatially explicit data on tidal and waves are required as part of coastal monitoring applications (e.g., radar monitoring of coastal change) for the design of interventions to mitigate the impacts of climate change. A deployment over two tidal cycles of a low-cost Global [...] Read more.

Spatially explicit data on tidal and waves are required as part of coastal monitoring applications (e.g., radar monitoring of coastal change) for the design of interventions to mitigate the impacts of climate change. A deployment over two tidal cycles of a low-cost Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) buoy at Rossall (near Fleetwood), UK demonstrated the potential to record good quality sea level and wave data within the intertidal zone. During each slack water and the following ebb tide, the sea level data were of good quality and comparable with data from nearby tide gauges on the national tide gauge network. Moreover, the GNSS receiver was able to capture wave information and these compared well with data from a commercial wave buoy situated 9.5 km offshore. Discontinuities were observed in the elevation data during flood tide, coincident with high accelerations and losing satellite signal lock. These were probably due to strong tidal currents, which, combined with spilling waves, would put the mooring line under tension and allow white water to spill over the antenna resulting in the periodic loss of GNSS signals, hence degrading the vertical solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coastal Environment Monitoring)

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14 pages, 2194 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insights on the Origin of Vitrified Rocks from Serravuda, Acri (Italy): Rock Fulgurite or Anthropogenic Activity?

by Chiara Elmi, Anna Cipriani, Federico Lugli and Giampaolo Sighinolfi

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120493 - 1 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2991

Abstract

In this study, twenty five partially vitrified rocks and four samples of vitrified rocks collected on the top hill called Serravuda (Acri, Calabria, Italy) are analyzed. The goal is to shed light on the origin of these enigmatic vitrified materials. The analyzed vitrified [...] Read more.

In this study, twenty five partially vitrified rocks and four samples of vitrified rocks collected on the top hill called Serravuda (Acri, Calabria, Italy) are analyzed. The goal is to shed light on the origin of these enigmatic vitrified materials. The analyzed vitrified rocks are a breccia of cemented rock fragments (gneiss, granitoid, and amphibolite fragments) which extends for more than 10 m, forming a continuous mass along the northern and north-west border of the flat top hill. Surrounded by the vitrified accumulation, exposed Paleozoic granitoid substrate rocks show limited melting or heat-alteration processes. By mapping minerals embedded in the glass matrix via X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), an interpretation of source rock material, reactions, and thermometric indications to form vitrified materials on the top hill of Serravuda, Acri (Italy), is provided. The mineralogical composition of heated or partially vitrified samples is heterogeneous owing to the effects of heating events, but it mostly recalls the parent rock composition (gneiss, granitoid, and amphibolite). The presence of quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, mullite, plagioclase, hercynite, cordierite, and olivine in Serravuda partially vitrified rocks and glasses suggests that samples were subjected to pyrometamorphism and the temperature range at which the glass formed was about 1000–1100 °C in the presence of hydrous gas, burning organic material (e.g., wood), and assuming thermodynamic equilibrium. Lithologies of the heated or partially vitrified rock fragments are a mixture of parent rocks not outcropping on the top of the hill such as gneiss and amphibolite. Data suggest that Serravuda vitrified rocks are most likely the result of anthropic activities and could represent remnants of vitrified fort walls. The mineral assemblage of partially vitrified rocks and glasses suggests that the fort walls were made of slabs derived from the local metamorphic rocks with the addition of Serravuda substrate Paleozoic granitoid rocks to improve the strength and insulation of the fort walls. Full article

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40 pages, 8187 KiB

Open AccessReview

State-of-the-Art Review of Enzyme-Induced Calcite Precipitation (EICP) for Ground Improvement: Applications and Prospects

by Mohamed G. Arab, Rami Alsodi, Abdullah Almajed, Hideaki Yasuhara, Waleed Zeiada and Mohamed A. Shahin

Geosciences 2021, 11(12), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120492 - 30 Nov 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 10354

Abstract

The global construction industry consumes huge amounts of mined materials that are considered unsustainable for earth resources. In addition, Portland cement which is a key element in concrete and most construction materials is considered one of the main contributors to worldwide CO₂ [...] Read more.

The global construction industry consumes huge amounts of mined materials that are considered unsustainable for earth resources. In addition, Portland cement which is a key element in concrete and most construction materials is considered one of the main contributors to worldwide CO₂ emissions. On the other hand, natural cemented soil deposits are examples of sustainable structures that have survived decades of severe environmental conditions. Mimicking these natural biological systems provide an alternative to the current practices of construction materials production. Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) is a bio-inspired technique based on the precipitation of calcium carbonate for enhancing the geo-mechanical properties of soils. In this technique, calcium carbonate acts as a cementitious agent that binds the soil particles together at the points of contact, hence, increasing the strength and stiffness of treated soils, while relatively reducing the soil permeability and porosity. The achieved enhancements make EICP useful for applications such as ground improvement, construction materials, and erosion control over traditional binders. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of EICP for ground improvement including the fundamental basics of EICP treatment. The paper also discusses the chemical and physical factors affecting the performance of EICP such as enzyme source, enzyme activity and solution constitutes. Moreover, the paper reviews the different methods and testing techniques used in the application of EICP for soil treatment. Furthermore, the paper compares EICP with other biomineralization techniques in terms of performance and applicability on ground improvement. Finally, the paper discusses the research gaps and existing challenges concerning the commercialization and large-scale implementation of the technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection New Advances in Geotechnical Engineering)

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