Geosciences

15 pages, 3742 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detrital Zircon Geochronology of the Volyn-Orsha Sedimentary Basin in Western Ukraine: Implications for the Meso-Neoproterozoic History of Baltica and Possible Link to Amazonia and the Grenvillian—Sveconorwegian—Sunsas Orogenic Belts

by Leonid Shumlyanskyy, Andrey Bekker, Iryna Tarasko, Ion Francovschi, Simon A. Wilde and Viktor Melnychuk

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050152 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1774

Abstract

We used LA-ICP-MS U-Pb data for detrital zircon to constrain the Maximum Depositional Age (MDA) and provenance of clastic sedimentary rocks of the Volyn-Orsha sedimentary basin, which filled an elongated (~625 × 250 km) depression in SW Baltica and attained ~900 m in [...] Read more.

We used LA-ICP-MS U-Pb data for detrital zircon to constrain the Maximum Depositional Age (MDA) and provenance of clastic sedimentary rocks of the Volyn-Orsha sedimentary basin, which filled an elongated (~625 × 250 km) depression in SW Baltica and attained ~900 m in thickness. Eighty-six zircons out of one hundred and three yielded concordant dates, with most of them (86%) falling in the time interval between 1655 ± 3 and 1044 ± 16 Ma and clustering in two peaks at ca. 1630 and 1230 Ma. The remaining zircons yielded dates older than 1800 Ma. The MDA is defined by a tight group of three zircons with a weighted mean age of 1079 ± 8 Ma. This age corresponds to the time of a ~90° clockwise rotation of Baltica and the formation of the Grenvillian—Sveconorwegian—Sunsas orogenic belts. Subsidence was facilitated by the presence of eclogites derived from subducted oceanic crust. The sediments of the Orsha sub-basin in the northeastern part of the basin were derived from the local crystalline basement, whereas the sediments in the Volyn sub-basin, extending to the margin of Baltica, were transported from the orogen between Laurentia, Baltica and Amazonia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Palaeontology)

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21 pages, 15648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Copper, Uranium and REE Mineralisation in an Exhumed Oil Reservoir, Southwest Orkney, Scotland

by Eleanor A. Heptinstall, John Parnell, Joseph G. T. Armstrong, Andrea Schito and Temitope O. Akinsanpe

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050151 - 20 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2208

Abstract

Copper, uranium, and rare earth element (REE) mineralisation occurs in hydrocarbon-bearing Devonian continental sandstones in southwest Orkney, Scotland. The aeolian Yesnaby Sandstone Formation and fluvial Harra Ebb Sandstone Formation were mineralised following oil emplacement. The REE-bearing APS mineral florencite is particularly associated with [...] Read more.

Copper, uranium, and rare earth element (REE) mineralisation occurs in hydrocarbon-bearing Devonian continental sandstones in southwest Orkney, Scotland. The aeolian Yesnaby Sandstone Formation and fluvial Harra Ebb Sandstone Formation were mineralised following oil emplacement. The REE-bearing APS mineral florencite is particularly associated with bituminous nodules, many of which contain brannerite. Subsequently hydrothermal copper and other sulphides, and barite, further mineralised the oil reservoir at a temperature of ~190 °C. Oil was mobilised through mineralised fractures at this stage. Biodegradation of the oil occurred later, following the Carboniferous-Permian uplift. The occurrence confirms that Cu-APS mineralisation is possible in relatively low-temperature regimes in sedimentary basins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemistry and Geochronology of Mineral Deposits)

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48 pages, 8943 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Setting of Earthquake-Related Ionospheric TEC (Total Electron Content) Anomalies Detection Methods: Long-Term Validation over the Italian Region

by Roberto Colonna, Carolina Filizzola, Nicola Genzano, Mariano Lisi and Valerio Tramutoli

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050150 - 18 May 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1960

Abstract

Over the last decade, thanks to the availability of historical satellite observations that have begun to be significantly large and thanks to the exponential growth of artificial intelligence techniques, many advances have been made in the detection of geophysical parameters such as seismic-related [...] Read more.

Over the last decade, thanks to the availability of historical satellite observations that have begun to be significantly large and thanks to the exponential growth of artificial intelligence techniques, many advances have been made in the detection of geophysical parameters such as seismic-related anomalies. In this study, the variations of the ionospheric Total Electron Content (TEC), one of the main parameters historically proposed as a seismic-connected indicator, are analyzed. To make a statistically robust analysis of the complex phenomena involved, we propose a completely innovative machine-learning approach developed in the R programming language. Through this approach, an optimal setting of the multitude of methodological inputs currently proposed for the detection of ionospheric anomalies is performed. The setting is optimized by analyzing, for the first time, multi-year—mostly twenty-year—time series of TEC satellite data measured by global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) over the Italian region, matched with the corresponding multi-year time series of seismic events. Seismic events including all the countries of the Mediterranean area, up to Turkey, are involved in the analysis. Tens of thousands of possible combinations of input methodological parameters are simulated and classified according to pre-established criteria. Several inputs examined return clear results. These results combined with each other highlight the presence of anomalous seismic-related sequences that have an extremely low probability of having been detected randomly (up to 2 out of 1 million). The anomalies identified represent the most anomalous behaviors of the TEC recorded during the entire period under investigation (e.g., 20 years). Some of the main conclusions are that, at mid-latitudes, ① the detection of seismic-TEC anomalies can be more efficient looking for punctual rather than persistent phenomena; ② the optimal thresholds for the identification of co-seismic anomalies can assume different values depending on type of anomaly (positive or negative) and type of observation; ③ single GNSS receiver data can be useful for capturing local earthquake-ionospheric effects and Global Ionospheric Maps (GIM) data can be functional in detecting large-scale earthquake-ionospheric effects; ④ earthquakes deeper than 50 km are less likely to affect the ionosphere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detecting Geospace Perturbations Caused by Earth II)

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17 pages, 2553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micropaleontological and Isotopic Perspective of Surface Water Mass Variability in the NE Atlantic from MIS 6 to 5e (188 to 115 ka)

by Harunur Rashid, Jiaxin Chen, Mary Menke and Min Zeng

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050149 - 15 May 2023

Viewed by 1741

Abstract

The penultimate glaciation (marine isotope stage (MIS) 6) is considered regionally extreme compared to the last glacial maximum, in which the European ice sheets had a vast areal extent. In contrast to the last deglaciation (19–7 ka), the penultimate deglaciation (140–130 ka) hosts [...] Read more.

The penultimate glaciation (marine isotope stage (MIS) 6) is considered regionally extreme compared to the last glacial maximum, in which the European ice sheets had a vast areal extent. In contrast to the last deglaciation (19–7 ka), the penultimate deglaciation (140–130 ka) hosts one of the most rapid oceanographic changes of the late Pleistocene. In this study, we reconstructed changes in the near-surface and thermocline in the central to northeast Atlantic by analyzing sediments from two Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 306 sites. Sites U1313 (41°00.6′ N, 32°57.4′ W) and U1314 (56°21.9′ N, 27°53.3′ W) were drilled on the eastern flank of the mid-Atlantic ridge and Gardar Drift of the eastern subpolar North Atlantic, respectively. We analyzed planktonic foraminiferal assemblages, ice-rafted debris (IRD), and oxygen isotopes in two planktonic foraminifers, Globigerina bulloides, and Globorotalia inflata, from MIS 6 to 5e (185–115 ka). Warmer and colder sea-surface conditions were marked by a change in the relative abundance of polar, subpolar, and transitional planktonic foraminifers. Oxygen isotopes in G. bulloides and G. inflata suggest that the thermocline deepened at the subtropical Site U1313 during MIS 6. The lack of Globorotalia inflata prevented us from profiling the mixed layer and thermocline at the subpolar Site U1314. In contrast to MIS 6, the mixed layer and thermocline were re-stratified during the last interglacial. The lack of major IRD events at both sites suggests the stability of the Laurentide ice sheet during MIS 6 compared to the subsequent glaciation. The presence of Heinrich event 11 indicates the discharge of freshwater that freshened the sea surface, resulting in mixing between the mixed layer and thermocline. Our results were placed into a broader context using published data that shed light on the sensitivity of freshwater discharge to the North Atlantic and the following changes with a transition from a penultimate glacial to an interglacial period in surface circulation. Full article

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25 pages, 5250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Influence of a Pre-Existing Shear Band on the Seismic Response of Ideal Step-like Slopes Subjected to Weak Motions: Preliminary Results

by Gaetano Falcone, Gaetano Elia and Annamaria di Lernia

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050148 - 15 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1803

Abstract

The assessment of slope susceptibility to seismically-induced displacements receives wide attention in the geotechnical earthquake engineering field, but the alteration of the seismic wave inside the slope and at the ground surface due to the presence of a shear band confining a quiescent [...] Read more.

The assessment of slope susceptibility to seismically-induced displacements receives wide attention in the geotechnical earthquake engineering field, but the alteration of the seismic wave inside the slope and at the ground surface due to the presence of a shear band confining a quiescent landslide body is rarely investigated. This paper describes the preliminary results of the numerical analysis of two step-like FE models, reproducing a gentle slope and steep cutting subjected to weak earthquakes, thus focusing on seismic wave amplification processes only. The results show that the higher the thickness of the weakened zone, the higher the maximum value of the amplification factors predicted at the ground surface. For gentle slopes affected by a landslide body confined by a thick shear band, the highest amplification factors are expected in the longer period range of 0.7–1.1 s, while the highest level of amplification is achieved in the intermediate period interval of 0.4–0.8 s in the case of steep slopes. In addition, the parasitic vertical component of acceleration can be considerably amplified beyond the crest and at the toe of the slope for increasing band thickness, especially in the case of steep topography, for which the effects of the shear band morphology enhance those related to the topographic profile. Finally, the fundamental frequency of the sloping deposit is not particularly affected by the presence of the shear band, while the amplitude of the amplification function at the fundamental frequency is clearly related to its thickness. Full article

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17 pages, 8321 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Hybrid Design Approach of Anchored Drapery Systems

by Maddalena Marchelli, Antonio Pol, Daniele Peila and Fabio Gabrieli

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050147 - 14 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1638

Abstract

Anchored drapery meshes represent a worldwide adopted protective solution against rockfall. The mechanical performance of a wire mesh is evaluated through laboratory procedures in which the boundary conditions strongly differ from the ones typical of field applications. This shows that the laboratory characterization [...] Read more.

Anchored drapery meshes represent a worldwide adopted protective solution against rockfall. The mechanical performance of a wire mesh is evaluated through laboratory procedures in which the boundary conditions strongly differ from the ones typical of field applications. This shows that the laboratory characterization is, in general, not representative of the field behavior. In this work, referring to a double-twisted wire mesh, a simple approach allowing the extension of the laboratory characteristic values to field conditions is proposed. The approach is based on the definition of analytical relations for evaluating the effects of both the mesh’s system geometry and the loading condition on the force–displacement response. These relations are derived from previously calibrated laboratory tests and are extended to different configurations on the basis of a large number of discrete element simulations. A master curve allowing the prediction of the entire force–displacement response of a general configuration of the drapery system is then defined. The results of this study can provide useful information for designing anchored drapery systems and can be easily associated with standard limit equilibrium calculations to move toward a hybrid design approach that couples forces with mesh deformations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rockfall Protection and Mitigation)

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32 pages, 7776 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Measurement of In-Situ Flow Rate in Borehole by Heat Pulse Flowmeter: Field-Case Study and Reflection

by Bing Liu, Guanxi Yan, Ye Ma and Alexander Scheuermann

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050146 - 14 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2524

Abstract

Large-scale groundwater flow modelling demands comprehensive geological investigation (GI) to accurately predict groundwater dynamics during open-cut and underground mining. Due to the existence of large-scale heterogeneity (e.g., fault and fracture) in natural geological strata (e.g., overburden soil, rock mass and coal seam), the [...] Read more.

Large-scale groundwater flow modelling demands comprehensive geological investigation (GI) to accurately predict groundwater dynamics during open-cut and underground mining. Due to the existence of large-scale heterogeneity (e.g., fault and fracture) in natural geological strata (e.g., overburden soil, rock mass and coal seam), the in-situ flow measurement in boreholes, compared to laboratory seepage tests, can bring more reliable information to estimating the in-situ seepage properties (e.g., hydraulic conductivity, intrinsic permeability, transmissivity and specific yield). In this paper, a flow-measuring technique-heat pulse flowmeter (HPFM) is methodologically introduced and then practically applied for GI in the mining extension zone of Hunter Valley Operations (HVO), New South Wales, Australia. The measuring experiences, including both positive and negative outcomes, are reported and discussed with a series of datasets of in-situ flow rates measured in the selected boreholes. The pros and cons of the HPFM application in HVO are also discussed and summarised based on the user experience collected through this field trip. Finally, through a thorough reflection, some practical recommendations are provided to help other HPFM practitioners bypass all difficulties experienced on this trip. It is anticipated that valuable user information can contribute to better GI in other sites when performing this measuring technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection New Advances in Geotechnical Engineering)

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15 pages, 8125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling the Trajectories of Ballistics in the Summit Area of Mt. Etna (Italy) during the 2020–2022 Sequence of Lava Fountains

by Giorgio Costa, Luigi Mereu, Michele Prestifilippo, Simona Scollo and Marco Viccaro

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050145 - 12 May 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1914

Abstract

Between 2020 and 2022, more than sixty lava fountains occurred at Mt. Etna (Italy), which formed high eruption columns rising up to 15 km above sea level (a.s.l.). During those events, several ballistics fell around the summit craters, sometimes reaching touristic areas. The [...] Read more.

Between 2020 and 2022, more than sixty lava fountains occurred at Mt. Etna (Italy), which formed high eruption columns rising up to 15 km above sea level (a.s.l.). During those events, several ballistics fell around the summit craters, sometimes reaching touristic areas. The rather frequent activity poses questions on how the impact associated with the fallout of those particles, can be estimated. In this work, we present field data collected soon after the lava fountain on 21 February 2022. This event produced a volcanic plume of about 10 km a.s.l. which was directed toward the southeast. Several ballistics fell in the area of the Barbagallo Craters (just southeast of the summit area at around 2900 m a.s.l.), which is one of the most popular touristic areas on Etna. Hence, we collected several samples and performed laboratory analyses in order to retrieve their size, shape and density. Those values together with a quantitative analysis of the lava fountain were compared with results obtained by a free-available calculator of ballistic trajectories named the ‘Eject!’. A similar approach was hence applied to other lava fountains of the 2020–2022 sequence for which the fallout of large clasts was reported. This work is a first step to identifying in near real-time the area affected by the fallout of ballistics during Etna lava fountains and quantifying their hazard. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Assessment of Recent Natural Hazard Events)

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20 pages, 5339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Time-Domain Electromagnetics for Subsea Permafrost Mapping in the Arctic: The Synthetic Response Analyses and Uncertainty Estimates from Numerical Modelling Data

by Dmitry A. Alekseev, Andrey V. Koshurnikov, Alexey Yu. Gunar, Ermolay I. Balikhin, Igor P. Semiletov, Natalia E. Shakhova, Nikolay A. Palshin and Leopold I. Lobkovsky

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050144 - 12 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1905

Abstract

Subsea permafrost stability is the key to whether pre-performed methane sequestered in hydrate deposits escapes to the overlying strata. By making use of the 1D numerical modeling and field data, we analyze the capabilities of the time-domain (transient) electromagnetic method (TDEM) when being [...] Read more.

Subsea permafrost stability is the key to whether pre-performed methane sequestered in hydrate deposits escapes to the overlying strata. By making use of the 1D numerical modeling and field data, we analyze the capabilities of the time-domain (transient) electromagnetic method (TDEM) when being applied for subsea permafrost mapping, and study the effect of the background resistivity structure on the inversion models’ accuracy for a series of settings typical for the East Siberian Arctic Shelf—the broadest and shallowest shelf in the world ocean, which represents more than 70% of the subsea permafrost. The synthetic response analysis included the construction of a series of resistivity models corresponding to different settings (presence/absence of ice-bonded permafrost layer, different position of its top and bottom boundaries, different width and thickness of thawed bodies or taliks, variable seawater depth and its resistivity), and calculation of synthetic apparent resistivity responses used to assess their sensitivity to changes in the target parameters of the resistivity structure. This was followed by regularized inversion of synthetic responses and comparing resulting models with original (true) ones, which allowed us to understand the possible uncertainties in the geometry and resistivity of the reconstructed permafrost layer, depending on seawater depth and unfrozen layer thickness, as well as confirm the overall efficacy of TDEM technology for the subsea permafrost imaging. That is crucially important for understanding the current state of the subsea permafrost-hydrate system and possible future dynamics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Marine Geology—Selected Papers from P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences)

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36 pages, 14590 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

“Geo-Archaeo-Routes” on the Island of Lemnos: The “Nalture” Experience as a Holistic Geotouristic Approach within the Geoethical Perspective

by Maria V. Triantaphyllou, Nikolaos Firkasis, Theodora Tsourou, Emmanuel Vassilakis, Evangelos Spyrou, Olga Koukousioura, Argyro Oikonomou and Athanasios Skentos

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050143 - 12 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3910

Abstract

The geosites of Lemnos represent local touristic products that, beyond their high aesthetic value, display significant scientific links to the geological past as well as prehistory and history, archaeology, mythology and religious heritage of the island. The unique wealth of Lemnos geosites in [...] Read more.

The geosites of Lemnos represent local touristic products that, beyond their high aesthetic value, display significant scientific links to the geological past as well as prehistory and history, archaeology, mythology and religious heritage of the island. The unique wealth of Lemnos geosites in combination with the abundance of archaeological sites, cultural monuments and museums composes the basis of what we define here as “Geo-Archaeo-Routes”: certain routes that can be geographically defined, offered, guided and finally followed by the touristic masses. The outcome of the performed quantitative Lemnos geosite assessment enables decision making, thus providing a toolbox useful for sustainable Geo-Archaeo-tourism development at a local level and forms the basis for designing “Geo-Archaeo-Routes”. “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” are particularly favorable of environmentally friendly alternative types of tourism, attracting naturalists, hikers, fans of cultural or religious tourism and many others who represent a major part of the touristic needs of the 21st century. The established hiking and road “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” on Lemnos Island may represent a distinctive touristic product as they offer a high level of “nalture” entertainment, blending “nature with culture” in the framework of a holistic geotouristic approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoheritage and Geotourism Resources: Education, Recreation, Sustainability II)

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24 pages, 7254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Keivy Domain of the Kola Granulite–Gneiss Area on the Baltic Shield: Most Ancient Median Massif of the Continental Crust

by Nickolay Sorokhtin, Nikolay Kozlov, Igor Semiletov, Leopold Lobkovsky, Sergey Nikiforov, Dmitry Alekseev and Roman Ananiev

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050142 - 12 May 2023

Viewed by 1650

Abstract

Studies of lithotectonic formations within the Keivy domain of the NE Baltic Shield have shown that the domain was tectonically overlapped by adjacent microcontinents during regional collision processes in the Late Archean. As a consequence, the continental crust of the Keivy domain was [...] Read more.

Studies of lithotectonic formations within the Keivy domain of the NE Baltic Shield have shown that the domain was tectonically overlapped by adjacent microcontinents during regional collision processes in the Late Archean. As a consequence, the continental crust of the Keivy domain was submerged, relative to other blocks of the continental crust, and the described domain acquired the features of a classical median massif. Surrounded on all sides by collision systems, the Keivy median massif entered the cratonization regime. This led to intensive processes of denudation of the surrounding domains of the crust and the accumulation of a thick sedimentary cover on the surface. The described processes occurred during the formation of the first supercontinent (Monogea) in the history of the Earth and the manifestation of the Early Precambrian Huronian glaciation, which left its traces on most domains of the Earth’s continental crust. Thus, the processes of peneplain formation within the Keivy massif occurred under the cold weather conditions, high volcanic activity in the peripheral zones, and sedimentary cover saturation with the products of the physical and chemical mineral transformation of tonalite–trondhjemite and greenstone rock assemblages. The unique combination of certain geodynamic and climatic cycles on the Baltic Shield in the Late Archean led to the accumulation of extensive stratiform deposits of alumina raw materials within the Keivy median massif. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Marine Geology—Selected Papers from P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences)

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25 pages, 7340 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conceptual Model of Expansive Rock or Soil Swelling

by Boris Kavur, Nataša Štambuk Cvitanović, Jasmin Jug and Ivan Vrkljan

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050141 - 11 May 2023

Viewed by 1779

Abstract

The paper presents a simple yet efficient way to track the void ratio, the water content, and the degree of saturation of a swelling material during saturation. The research aimed to quantitatively describe the drying and wetting processes of the swelling material, which [...] Read more.

The paper presents a simple yet efficient way to track the void ratio, the water content, and the degree of saturation of a swelling material during saturation. The research aimed to quantitatively describe the drying and wetting processes of the swelling material, which should enable their better understanding and easier modelling. Two identical tall samples, named “twins”, were formed by consolidating the paste prepared from the swelling material in which montmorillonite is the dominant mineral. The twins were together exposed to one-dimensional drying. After drying, lasting for 40 days, one twin was dissected to determine its water content profile. The other twin was subjected to 1D wetting (ponded infiltration experiment) with a constant water column for a period of 21 days and then dissected to determine the moisture profile. The sample preparation reduces uncertainties about the initial state. The results show that during wetting, the material follows a path in the e-w plot which is parallel to the full saturation curve. After reaching some degree of saturation, the path becomes parallel to the residual (shrinking) line. The proposed model predicts the primary and secondary phases of swelling, and under appropriate conditions, it assumes the tertiary phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Support Theory and Technology of Geotechnical Engineering)

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21 pages, 4182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Microbial and Faunal Pattern Correspond to Dynamics in Hydrogeology and Hydrochemistry? Comparative Study of Two Isolated Groundwater Ecosystems in Münsterland, Germany

by Sura Abdulghani Alqaragholi, Wael Kanoua, Harald Strauss and Patricia Göbel

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050140 - 11 May 2023

Viewed by 1450

Abstract

The objective of this study was to assess the temporal and spatial variability of aquatic invertebrates and microbial parameters (biomass and activity) with environmental data in springs, and to determine the impact of key parameters on the ecological situation of a groundwater system. [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to assess the temporal and spatial variability of aquatic invertebrates and microbial parameters (biomass and activity) with environmental data in springs, and to determine the impact of key parameters on the ecological situation of a groundwater system. Eight springs in the two study areas of Baumberge and Schöppinger Berg (W-NW of Münster, North Rhine Westphalia, Germany) were sampled at three sampling campaigns between 2018 and 2019. Physicochemical parameters of the spring samples and abundances of aquatic invertebrates were determined at each sampling event. Samples for hydro(geo)chemical and microbial analyses were collected during each sampling campaign in the springs. Spearman correlation and principal component analysis were used to identify the key parameters. The abundance of aquatic invertebrates and microbial activity were significantly positively correlated with groundwater table fluctuation. The abundance of stygobite individuals was significantly positively correlated with the Groundwater-Fauna-Index and phosphate in Baumberge, and negatively correlated with chloride in Schöppinger Berg. Most notably, the stable isotopes of water and microbial activity were significantly inversely correlated. The hydro(geo)chemical results showed no significant spatial differences in groundwater in both groundwater systems. Stable isotopes of water indicate a meteoric origin, with an effect of evaporation for two months, even though the downward percolation and groundwater recharge rates are high. The nitrate concentration was higher than 50 mg/L only in SB due to the agricultural activities. Nitrate input into groundwater comes from two sources in Baumberge, while it comes from one source in Schöppinger Berg. There was no evidence of denitrification in both areas. Secondary gypsum is assumed to be the source of sulfate in groundwater in Schöppinger Berg, but anaerobic oxidation of pyrite in the deeper part of the groundwater system as a source of sulfate cannot be excluded. Full article

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35 pages, 33136 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Numerical Modeling of an Asteroid Impact on Earth: Matching Field Observations at the Chicxulub Crater Using the Distinct Element Method (DEM)

by Tam N.-M. Duong, Billy Hernawan, Zenon Medina-Cetina and Jaime Urrutia Fucugauchi

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050139 - 9 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4838

Abstract

In recent years, an international consortium of research organizations conducted investigations at the Chicxulub Crater in Yucatan, Mexico, to better understand the crater’s formation mechanisms and the effects produced by the impact of the asteroid that is hypothesized to have caused one of [...] Read more.

In recent years, an international consortium of research organizations conducted investigations at the Chicxulub Crater in Yucatan, Mexico, to better understand the crater’s formation mechanisms and the effects produced by the impact of the asteroid that is hypothesized to have caused one of the major life extinctions on Earth. This study aims to reproduce the asteroid’s impact mechanics by matching computer simulations obtained with the use of the distinct element method (DEM) against the latest topographic data observed across the crater footprint. A 2D model was formulated using ITASCA’s PFC2D software to reproduce the asteroid’s impact on Earth. The model ground conditions prior to impact were replicated based on available geological and geophysical field information. Also, the proposed DEM model configuration was designed to reproduce a far-field effect to ascertain the energy dissipation of the asteroid’s impact at the model’s boundaries. Impact conditions of the asteroid were defined based on previous asteroid impact investigations. A parametric analysis including the asteroid’s impact angle and the asteroid’s impact velocity was conducted to assess their influence on the crater formation process. Results of the simulations included the final crater topography and stratigraphy, stress profiles, contact force chains, and velocity fields. Numerical simulations showed that both the asteroid velocity and impact inclination play a major role in the crater formation process, and that the use of DEM provides interesting insights into impact crater formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Stochastic Geomechanics: From Experimentation to Forward Modeling)

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15 pages, 23051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

InSAR-Based Detection of Subsidence Affecting Infrastructures and Urban Areas in Emilia-Romagna Region (Italy)

by Lisa Beccaro, Giuseppe Cianflone and Cristiano Tolomei

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050138 - 9 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2571

Abstract

The study of deformation signals associated with seismicity in alluvial plain areas is a challenging topic that, however, is increasingly studied thanks to the great aid given by remote sensing techniques that exploit Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data. This study focuses on the [...] Read more.

The study of deformation signals associated with seismicity in alluvial plain areas is a challenging topic that, however, is increasingly studied thanks to the great aid given by remote sensing techniques that exploit Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data. This study focuses on the determination of the deformation field within the Emilia-Romagna Region (northern Italy), in the area comprising Modena, Reggio Emilia, and Parma cities. SAR data acquired along both orbits during the Sentinel-1 and Cosmo-SkyMed satellite missions were processed with the Small Baseline Subset interferometric technique from June 2012, after the serious seismic swarm of May 2012, to January 2022, just before the two earthquakes occurred in February 2022. The results, validated with Global Navigation Satellite System measurements, do not highlight displacements correlated with the seismicity but, thanks to their high spatial resolution, it was possible to discriminate areas affected by noticeable subsidence phenomena: (i) the highly industrialized areas located north of the municipalities of Reggio Emilia and Modena cities and (ii) a sector of the high-speed railway sited north of the Reggio Emilia city centre, close to the Reggio Emilia AV Mediopadana station. Here we show that, at least since 2012, the latter area is affected by subsidence which can be related to the secondary consolidation process of the fine soils loaded by the railway embankment. The piezometric level analysis also suggests that the lowering of the groundwater table could accelerate the subsidence rate, affecting the stability of infrastructures in highly populated and industrialized areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earth Observation by GNSS and GIS Techniques)

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20 pages, 1983 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Critical Failure Factors of Flood Early Warning and Response Systems (FEWRS): A Structured Literature Review and Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) Analysis

by Srimal Samansiri, Terrence Fernando and Bingunath Ingirige

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050137 - 8 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4422

Abstract

Flood warning and response systems are essential components of risk reduction strategies with the potential to reduce loss of life and impact on personal assets. However, recent flood incidents have caused significant loss of human lives due to failures in current flood warning [...] Read more.

Flood warning and response systems are essential components of risk reduction strategies with the potential to reduce loss of life and impact on personal assets. However, recent flood incidents have caused significant loss of human lives due to failures in current flood warning and response mechanisms. These failures are broadly related to policies concerning, and governance aspects within, warning generation, the behaviour of communities in responding to early warnings, and weaknesses in associated tools and technologies used in communicating early warnings and responding. Capturing critical failure factors affecting flood warning and response systems can provide opportunities for making corrective measures and for developing a more advanced and futuristic system for early flood warnings. This paper reports the findings of a structured review that was conducted to identify critical failure factors in flood early warning and response systems. This study found twenty-four critical failure factors (CFFs). The interpretive structural modelling (ISM) approach conducted in this study resulted in identifying four different types of failure factors (autonomous, dependent, linkage, and independent) with varying dependence and driving powers. Analysis shows that governance, leadership, finance, standard operating procedures (SoP), and community engagement are the most dominating factors with the highest driving factor, which can overcome other dependent factors. The outcome of this review could be helpful for policymakers and practitioners in overcoming failure factors and implementing effective early warning and response systems. Full article

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13 pages, 2703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Imprints of Millennial-Scale Monsoonal Events during the MIS3 Revealed by Stalagmite δ¹³C Records in China

by Rongyu Shen, Peng Zhang, Jiaqi Cong, Jing Liao, Xuelin Luo, Liangcheng Tan, Jinguo Dong and Yijia Liang

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050136 - 8 May 2023

Viewed by 1656

Abstract

Regions located on the Chinese Loess Plateau are sensitive to changes in the Asian monsoon because they are on the edge of the monsoon region. Based on six ²³⁰Th experiments and 109 sets of stable isotope data of LH36 from Lianhua Cave, [...] Read more.

Regions located on the Chinese Loess Plateau are sensitive to changes in the Asian monsoon because they are on the edge of the monsoon region. Based on six ²³⁰Th experiments and 109 sets of stable isotope data of LH36 from Lianhua Cave, Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, we obtained a paleoclimate record with an average resolution of 120 years from 54.5 to 41.1 ka BP during the MIS3 on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Both the Hendy test and the replication test indicated an equilibrium fractionation of stable isotopes during the stalagmite deposition. Comparison with four other independently-dated, high-resolution stalagmite δ¹³C records between 29°N and 41°N in the Asian monsoon region shows that the stalagmite δ¹³C records from different caves have good reproducibility during the overlapped growth period. We suggest that speleothem δ¹³C effectively indicates soil CO₂ production in the overlying area of the cave, reflecting changes in the cave’s external environment and in the Asian summer monsoon. Five millennial-scale Asian summer monsoon intensification events correspond to the Dansgaard–Oeschger 10–14 cycles recorded in the Greenland ice core within dating errors, and the weak monsoon processes are closely related to stadials in the North Atlantic. The spatial consistency of stalagmite δ¹³C records in China suggests that the Asian summer monsoon and the related regional ecological environment fluctuations sensitively respond to climate changes at northern high latitudes through sea-air coupling on the millennial timescale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Variations at Millennial Timescales)

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12 pages, 8886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Late-Quaternary Evolution of the Semi-Confined Alluvial Megafan of Isonzo River (Northern Adriatic): Where the Fluvial System of the Southern Alps Meets the Karst

by Livio Ronchi, Alessandro Fontana, Ana Novak, Annamaria Correggiari and Sašo Poglajen

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050135 - 7 May 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2198

Abstract

The evolution of alluvial megafans has mainly been investigated in unconfined settings; however, at the boundary of these large depositional systems, the development of fluvial channels can be affected by structural constraints with regional extent. Here we present the study of the eastern [...] Read more.

The evolution of alluvial megafans has mainly been investigated in unconfined settings; however, at the boundary of these large depositional systems, the development of fluvial channels can be affected by structural constraints with regional extent. Here we present the study of the eastern sector of the megafan of Isonzo River, in the Gulf of Trieste, where this system fed through the southern Alps is constrained by the Karst and Istria cliffs. Although this area is now submerged under the northern Adriatic Sea, stratigraphy from seismo-acoustic profiles, drill cores and multi-beam bathymetry allows us to reconstruct the paleochannel system of the Isonzo River in detail, which was likely active within the period of 21–17.5 ka cal BP, at the end of LGM. This was reconstructed for over 50 km and currently represents the longest abandoned fluvial channel in the Mediterranean seabed. The occurrence of the mountain fringe and competition with nearby alluvial systems forced the paleochannel to follow the present coastline and conditioned the slope of its thalweg to decrease almost to null, resulting the transformation from the megafan to the undifferentiated alluvial plain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Palaeontology)

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22 pages, 1689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seeking Flood Risk-Minimization: How to Benefit from the Use/Availability of Heavy Rainfall-Risk Maps

by Christian Bone, Matteo Rubinato, Bert Bosseler and Marco Schlüter

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050134 - 5 May 2023

Viewed by 2395

Abstract

The 2021 flooding events in The Netherlands, Belgium and Germany have sensitized many municipalities across Europe and especially in Germany, the federal states of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) and Rhineland-Palatinate, having been particularly affected, have formulated more extensive requirements for the municipalities to be [...] Read more.

The 2021 flooding events in The Netherlands, Belgium and Germany have sensitized many municipalities across Europe and especially in Germany, the federal states of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) and Rhineland-Palatinate, having been particularly affected, have formulated more extensive requirements for the municipalities to be able to manage these drastic situations. Flood risks and heavy rainfall maps are crucial instruments in this context because they serve as a basis for identifying risks and also for selecting suitable measures to minimize them and, in 2021, in Germany, the Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy (BKG) made available for the first time a state-wide, cross-municipal heavy rainfall information map for the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, in which heavy rainfall and flooding risks are recognizable for every citizen. Therefore, municipalities that already had their own heavy rainfall maps had a comparative possibility of plausibility checks, while those that did not yet have their own heavy rainfall map, had the possibility to benefit from these resources. Especially in this second scenario, the municipalities and the wastewater utilities need reliable practical advice on how to classify the information from the maps regarding drainage consequences, and this paper aims to fill this void, summarizing the experience of the 80 municipalities represented in the KomNetAbwasser in dealing with heavy rainfall maps and discussing requirements for their informative value. Furthermore, measures for risk minimization and their prioritization are also proposed, focusing on risk identification, organizational tasks, action planning and implementation, analysis of the hazard maps, risk assessment and the selection of emergency measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flood Risk Reduction)

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17 pages, 4269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding the Spatial Variability of the Relationship between InSAR-Derived Deformation and Groundwater Level Using Machine Learning

by Guobin Fu, Wolfgang Schmid and Pascal Castellazzi

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050133 - 4 May 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1994

Abstract

The interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technique was used in this study to derive the temporal and spatial information of ground deformation and explore its temporal correlation with groundwater dynamics. The random forest (RF) machine learning method was used to model the spatial [...] Read more.

The interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technique was used in this study to derive the temporal and spatial information of ground deformation and explore its temporal correlation with groundwater dynamics. The random forest (RF) machine learning method was used to model the spatial variability of the temporal correlation and understand its influential contributors. The results showed that groundwater dynamics appeared to be an important factor in InSAR deformation at some bores where strong and positive correlations were observed. The RF model could explain up to 72% of spatial variances between InSAR deformation and groundwater dynamics. The spatial and temporal InSAR coherence (a proxy for the noise in InSAR results that is strongly related to vegetation) and soil moisture (difference, trend, and amplitude) were the most important factors explaining the spatial pattern of the temporal correlation between InSAR displacements and groundwater levels. This result confirms that noise sources (including deformation model fitting errors and radar signal decorrelation) and perturbation of the InSAR signal related to vegetation and surficial soils (clay content, moisture changes) should be accounted for when interpreting InSAR to support groundwater-related risk assessments and in groundwater resource management activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)

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23 pages, 22227 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Numerical Study on the Weakening Effects of Microwave Irradiation and Surface Flux Heating Pretreatments in Comminution of Granite

by Martina Pressacco, Jari Kangas and Timo Saksala

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050132 - 3 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1772

Abstract

Thermal pretreatments of rock, such as conventional heating and microwave irradiation, have received considerable attention recently as a viable method of improving the energy efficiency of mining processes that involve rock fracturing. This study presents a numerical analysis of the effects of thermal [...] Read more.

Thermal pretreatments of rock, such as conventional heating and microwave irradiation, have received considerable attention recently as a viable method of improving the energy efficiency of mining processes that involve rock fracturing. This study presents a numerical analysis of the effects of thermal shock and microwave heating on the mechanical properties of hard, granite-like rock. More specifically, the aim is to numerically assess the reduction of uniaxial compressive strength of thermally pretreated specimens compared to intact ones. We also compare the performance of these two pretreatments (conventional heating and microwave irradiation) in terms of consumed energy and induced damage. Rock fracture is modelled by a damage-viscoplasticity model, with separate damage variables in tension and compression. A global solution strategy is developed for solving the thermo-mechanical problem (conventional heating) and the electromagnetic–thermo-mechanical problem (microwave heating). The electromagnetic part of the microwave heating problem is solved in COMSOL Multiphysics software Version 6.1 first. The electromagnetic solution is used as an input for the thermo-mechanical problem, which is finally solved by means of a staggered explicit solution method. Due to the predominance of the external thermal sources, the thermal and the mechanical parts of the problem in both cases are considered as uncoupled. Three-dimensional finite element simulations are utilized to study the damage-viscoplasticity model. An ore-shaped three-mineral numerical rock specimen is used in uniaxial compression tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Numerical Modelling and Analysis in Geotechnical Engineering)

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27 pages, 9732 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Geological Uniqueness and Potential Geotouristic Appeal of Murge and Premurge, the First Territory in Puglia (Southern Italy) Aspiring to Become a UNESCO Global Geopark

by Marcello Tropeano, Massimo A. Caldara, Vincenzo De Santis, Vincenzo Festa, Mario Parise, Luisa Sabato, Luigi Spalluto, Ruggero Francescangeli, Vincenzo Iurilli, Giuseppe A. Mastronuzzi, Marco Petruzzelli, Filippo Bellini, Marianna Cicala, Elio Lippolis, Fabio M. Petti, Matteo Antonelli, Stefano Cardia, Jacopo Conti, Rafael La Perna, Maria Marino, Antonella Marsico, Enrico Sacco, Antonello Fiore, Oronzo Simone, Salvatore Valletta, Umberto S. D’Ettorre, Vincenzo De Giorgio, Isabella S. Liso and Eliana Stigliano Show full author list Hide full author list

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050131 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4500

Abstract

At the end of November 2021, a large area of Puglia (an administrative region in Southern Italy) was officially nominated as new aUGGp (aspiring UNESCO Global Geopark) by the Italian National Commission of UNESCO. This area comprises the northwestern part of the Murge [...] Read more.

At the end of November 2021, a large area of Puglia (an administrative region in Southern Italy) was officially nominated as new aUGGp (aspiring UNESCO Global Geopark) by the Italian National Commission of UNESCO. This area comprises the northwestern part of the Murge territory, where a Cretaceous sector of the Apulia Carbonate Platform crops out, and part of the adjacent Premurge territory, where the southwestward lateral continuation of the same platform (being flexed toward the Southern Apennines Chain) is covered by thin Plio-Quaternary foredeep deposits. The worldwide geological uniqueness of the aspiring Geopark (Murge aUGGp) is that the area is the only in situ remnant of the Adria Plate, the old continental plate almost entirely squeezed between the Africa and Eurasia Plates. In such a context, the Murge area (part of the Apulia Foreland) is a virtually undeformed sector of Adria, while other territories of the plate are and/or were involved in the subduction/collision processes. In the aspiring Geopark, the crust of Adria is still rooted to its mantle, and the Cretaceous evolution of the continent is widely recorded in the Murge area thanks to the shallow-water carbonate succession of one of the largest peri-Tethys carbonate platforms (the Apulia Carbonate Platform). The aspiring Geopark also comprises the Premurge area, which represents the outer Southern Apennines foredeep, whose Plio-Quaternary evolution is spectacularly exposed thanks to an “anomalous” regional middle-late Quaternary uplift. Despite the presence of numerous geological singularities of international importance, it would be important, from a geotourist point of view, to propose a regional framework of the geology of the aUGGp before introducing visitors to the significance of the individual geosites, whose importance could be amplified if included in the geoevolutionary context of the Murge aUGGp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoheritage and Geotourism Resources: Education, Recreation, Sustainability II)

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19 pages, 4283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluid Redox Fingerprint of the CaCO₃+Antigorite Dehydration Reaction in Subducted Metacarbonate Sediments

by Andrea Maffeis, Simona Ferrando, James Alexander Denis Connolly, Maria Luce Frezzotti and Daniele Castelli

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050130 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1871

Abstract

Antigorite dehydration is a process able to release, in comparison with other minerals, the highest amount of H₂O from a subducting slab. The released fluid delivers critical elements (e.g., S, Cu, and REE) to the overlying subarc mantle, modifying the mantle [...] Read more.

Antigorite dehydration is a process able to release, in comparison with other minerals, the highest amount of H₂O from a subducting slab. The released fluid delivers critical elements (e.g., S, Cu, and REE) to the overlying subarc mantle, modifying the mantle source of arc magmas and related ore deposits. Whether antigorite breakdown produces oxidising or reducing fluids is debated. Whereas previous studies have investigated antigorite dehydration in serpentinites (i.e., in a (C)AMFS-H₂O system), this contribution is devoted to the CMFS-COHS carbonate system, which is representative of the metacarbonate sediments (or carbonate-dominated ophicarbonate rocks) that sit atop the slab. Thermodynamic modelling is used to investigate the redox effect of the carbonate-buffered antigorite dehydration reactions (i.e., brucite breakdown and antigorite breakdown) on electrolytic fluid geochemistry as a function of P-T-fO₂. The influence of P-T-fO₂ conditions on the solubility of C and S, solute-bound H₂ and O₂, fluid pH, the average valence states of dissolved C and S, and the fluid redox budget indicates that, in metacarbonate sediments, the CaCO₃+antigorite reaction tends to produce reducing fluids. However, the redox state of such fluids is buffered not only by the redox state of the system but also, most importantly, by concomitantly dissolving redox-sensitive minerals (i.e., carbonates, graphite, pyrite, and anhydrite). A qualitative correlation between the redox state of the system and the possible depth of fluid release into the mantle wedge is also derived. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Early Career Scientists’ (ECS) Contributions to Geosciences)

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13 pages, 2813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Localized Vegetation, Soil Moisture, and Ice Content Offset Permafrost Degradation under Climate Warming

by Gleb E. Oblogov, Alexander A. Vasiliev, Dmitry A. Streletskiy, Nikolay I. Shiklomanov and Kelsey E. Nyland

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050129 - 29 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2018

Abstract

Rapid Arctic warming is expected to result in widespread permafrost degradation. However, observations show that site-specific conditions (vegetation and soils) may offset the reaction of permafrost to climate change. This paper summarizes 43 years of interannual seasonal thaw observations from tundra landscapes surrounding [...] Read more.

Rapid Arctic warming is expected to result in widespread permafrost degradation. However, observations show that site-specific conditions (vegetation and soils) may offset the reaction of permafrost to climate change. This paper summarizes 43 years of interannual seasonal thaw observations from tundra landscapes surrounding the Marre-Sale on the west coast of the Yamal Peninsula, northwest Siberia. This robust dataset includes landscape-specific climate, active layer thickness, soil moisture, and vegetation observations at multiple scales. Long-term trends from these hierarchically scaled observations indicate that drained landscapes exhibit the most pronounced responses to changing climatic conditions, while moist and wet tundra landscapes exhibit decreasing active layer thickness, and river floodplain landscapes do not show changes in the active layer. The slow increase in seasonal thaw depth despite significant warming observed over the last four decades on the Yamal Peninsula can be explained by thickening moss covers and ground surface subsidence as the transient layer (ice-rich upper permafrost soil horizon) thaws and compacts. The uneven proliferation of specific vegetation communities, primarily mosses, is significantly contributing to spatial variability observed in active layer dynamics. Based on these findings, we recommend that regional permafrost assessments employ a mean landscape-scale active layer thickness that weights the proportions of different landscape types. Full article

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19 pages, 1497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cyclic Steps Created by Flowing Water on Ice Surface

by Zhuyuan Wu and Norihiro Izumi

Geosciences 2023, 13(5), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050128 - 28 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1173

Abstract

The interface between ice and fluid can become unstable and devolve into cyclic steps bounded by hydraulic jumps. These steps are created by flowing water or wind over the ice surface. This study presents an analytical model to reproduce cyclic steps created by [...] Read more.

The interface between ice and fluid can become unstable and devolve into cyclic steps bounded by hydraulic jumps. These steps are created by flowing water or wind over the ice surface. This study presents an analytical model to reproduce cyclic steps created by water over the ice surface. We apply four governing equations: the momentum equation, the continuity equation, the heat transfer equation in water, and the energy balance equation (the Stefan equation). After calculation, we can generate the variations in the depth-averaged water temperature, the depth-averaged velocity, and the ice elevation over one step wavelength. We can also understand the cyclic step formation process and how the heat transfer capacity of air and water, and the Froude number in the normal flow condition influence the wavelength. The results of the obtained steps in the analysis are compared with experimental observations to validate our model. Full article

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