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Article

The Possibility of Using Waste Biomass from Selected Plants Cultivated for Industrial Purposes to Produce a Renewable and Sustainable Source of Energy

by
Miłosz Zardzewiały
1,
Marcin Bajcar
2,
Czesław Puchalski
2 and
Józef Gorzelany
1,*
1
Department of Food and Agriculture Production Engineering, University of Rzeszow, St. Zelwerowicza 4, 35-601 Rzeszow, Poland
2
Department of Bioenergetics, Food Analysis and Microbiology, University of Rzeszow, 2D Ćwiklińskiej Street, 35-601 Rzeszow, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(5), 3195; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053195
Submission received: 4 January 2023 / Revised: 20 February 2023 / Accepted: 28 February 2023 / Published: 2 March 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Municipal/Industrial Solid and Liquid Waste in Energy Area)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Waste biomass generated during agricultural production is a popular source of energy used in many developed and developing countries, due to economic factors and easy availability. Pellets produced from waste biomass generated during the cultivation of plants for industrial purposes are a good substitute for fossil fuels, the consumption of which should decrease for environmental reasons. This article presents the results of research on the use of waste biomass generated during the cultivation of plants for industrial purposes, such as sunflower, tobacco, and Jerusalem artichoke for the production of pellets. In addition, coniferous sawdust was used for the production of pellets. Mechanical, calorimetric, and thermogravimetric properties were tested. It was noted that pellets made of Jerusalem artichoke biomass (1591.45 N) were the most resistant to mechanical damage. The calorific value of the tested fuels ranged from 16.35 to 17.70 MJ·kg−1, and the ash content was below 5%. In addition, during the combustion of pellets, the lowest emissions of nitrogen oxides were recorded for pellets made of tobacco stalks—45.56 mg·m−3 and sulfur dioxide for pellets consisting of a mixture of coniferous sawdust and tobacco stalks—1.88 mg·m−3. The addition of coniferous sawdust to each type of biomass tested resulted in a reduction in the emission of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, and an increase in the emission of nitrogen oxides. Based on the research, we found that the waste biomass generated during the cultivation of the tested plants for industrial purposes is a suitable raw material for the production of pellets used for industrial and non-industrial purposes.

1. Introduction

Biomass generated during agricultural production can be used as an energy source in various forms, depending on its physicochemical properties and availability [1]. Agriculture, as one of the branches of the economy, generates huge amounts of waste each year that can be used for energy purposes. Typically, such biomass, when unsuitable for use as feed, is incinerated, composted, or landfilled. Wastes from industrial crops are potential raw materials to produce fuels, polymers and building materials [2]. The combustion of fossil fuels is associated with environmental pollution caused by the emission of billions of tons of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases annually [3]. Therefore, there is a need to use renewable energy sources. Cultivation plants have the great advantage of absorbing the rising levels of CO2 in the atmosphere [4].
In addition, waste biomass generated during the cultivation of selected plants can be treated as renewable energy sources that can be directly or indirectly converted into energy [5]. The use of biomass for combustion is also a way to reduce the amount of methane emitted into the atmosphere, which is generated from the decomposition of biomass in landfills or in open composting systems [6].
The use of waste generated during agricultural production is popular in most developing countries due to economic factors and its easy availability [7]. Even though agricultural biomass has a relatively low calorific value, it has been used in many countries in Asia and Africa as the main source of energy [8]. In Europe and North America, it is an alternative to fossil fuels [9]. Biomass generated during agricultural production is a valuable source of sustainable energy and its energy value depends on the type of crop. Waste from agricultural production can be directly used to produce heat and electricity [5]. In addition, biogas or ethanol can be obtained from this waste [10] to meet the energy needs of households [11]. Agricultural biomass can also be subjected to the pelletizing process, and as pellets, can be used for combustion in central heating furnaces for households and industrial boilers [12]. Pellets have many advantages. They are characterized by low moisture, low ash content, and are neutral in terms of carbon dioxide emissions [13]. In addition, taking into account the amount of macro and microelements present in the ashes, which are solid products of pellet combustion, they can be beneficially used as fertilizer in the fields [14]. In accordance with sustainable development and environmental protection, the most advantageous way of using the ashes obtained from the combustion of plant biomass is to return them to the soil [15]. Global reserves of conventional fuels are limited. The decrease in the availability of fossil fuels causes an increase in their prices, affecting the global economic situation. Therefore, the availability of biofuel from agricultural biomass is an alternative option to reduce energy consumption dependence on traditional fuels [16].
The aim of the work was to produce pellets from waste generated during the cultivation of selected plants for industrial purposes and to assess their quality and impact on the natural environment.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Object

In this work, wood pellets produced from waste generated during the cultivation of plants used for industrial purposes were used for the research. In the case of plant biomass, waste from the cultivation of sunflower (Helianthus L.), Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.), and tobacco (Nicotiana L.) were used. The pellets were supplemented with coniferous sawdust obtained from a local sawmill. The material for the analysis was various types of pellets (diameter 6 mm) produced in the laboratory of the Department of Bioenergetics, Food Analysis and Microbiology.
After the tobacco, Jerusalem artichoke, and sunflower plants are harvested, waste (i.e., stems) is generated, which is difficult to manage because it is very slowly mineralized in the soil, due to the problem of using the residues from the cultivation of these plants grown for industrial purposes in order to be used to produce pellets. Then, the collected material was dried in the open air and ground in an Essa-CM 1000 grinder (Atest Sp. z o. o., Kielce, Poland). In addition, coniferous sawdust was used for the production of pellets. After preparing the raw materials in the Prime-200 pelletizing machine (TechnoMaszBud, Darke, Poland), six types of pellets with different composition were made:
-P1-pellet made of 100% sunflower stalks,
-P2-pellet made of 50% coniferous sawdust and 50% sunflower stalks,
-P3-pellet made of 100% tobacco stalks,
-P4-pellet made of 50% coniferous sawdust and 50% tobacco stalks,
-P5-pellet made of 100% Jerusalem artichoke stalks,
-P6-pellet made of 50% coniferous sawdust and 50% Jerusalem artichoke stalks.
The prepared pellets were stored in a closed room free from excessive moisture in perforated foil bags weighing 5 kg. Bags with pellets were placed on a pallet, to keep distance from the ground. Mechanical tests were performed on the 1st, 30th, 60th, and 90th day of storage.

2.2. Static Tests of Pellets

The Zwick/Roell Z010 testing machine (Zwick Roell Polska Sp. Z o.o. Sp. K., Wroclaw, Poland) was used to measure the mechanical properties in the process of uniaxial compression of pellets with a diameter of 6 mm in the horizontal axis, in accordance with the methodology described by Gorzelany et al. [17].

2.3. Physicochemical Analyses

The basic physicochemical parameters of the analyzed pellets were determined: total content of nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon, as well as ash, volatile substances, and calorific value, using the LECO TGA 701 thermogravimeter, LECO CHN TrueSpec elemental composition analyzer (Leco, St. Joseph, MI, USA) and LECO AC 500 isoperibolic calorimeter (Leco, St. Joseph, MI, USA).

2.4. Statistical Analysis

STATISTICA12.5 PL software by StatSoft was used for statistical calculations. A significance threshold of ≤0.05 was set for all analyses. The data was analyzed separately for each type of pellet. In order to verify the significance of the impact of various wastes used in pellets on their quality parameters, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used. The obtained results were analyzed individually for each type of materials and the number of repetitions n = 3.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Measurement of Mechanical Properties

Mechanical parameters determine the quality of pellets, which are very important from the point of view of being used as fuel for automatic boilers. Appropriate values of mechanical parameters determine the resistance of biomass to disintegration during transport and affect its burning time. This paper presents the results of testing selected mechanical properties of six types of pellets (static tests), which allowed us to determine the quality of the tested biomass. The tests were carried out 24 h after the production of pellets (Table 1). In order to determine the impact of pellet storage time, testing of mechanical properties were carried out on the 30th, 60th, and 90th day of their storage (Table 2).
For the analyzed pellets with a diameter of 6 mm, the values of the destructive force Fmax were varied. The lowest value of destructive force was characteristic for the sunflower stalk pellet (P1). In turn, the pellet made of tobacco stalks (P3) was characterized by a slightly higher value of this parameter compared to the pellet of sunflower stalks (P1). On the other hand, pellets made of Jerusalem artichoke stalks (P5) were the most resistant to damage. The value of the destructive force for this type of fuel was 1 591.45 N. Pellets with an admixture of coniferous sawdust, in the case of sunflower (P2) and tobacco (P4) stalks, were characterized by a slightly higher resistance to damage compared to pellets made of the same raw materials (P1 and P3), but without the admixture of coniferous sawdust. However, in the case of topimabnur stems, the addition of sawdust reduced the destructive force (P6) compared to pellets made of 100% raw material stems (P5).
When analyzing the values of energy needed to destroy the pellet (W to Fmax), it was observed that they corresponded to the values of the destructive force parameter. The sunflower stalk pellet had the lowest energy value until destruction (P1- 147.13 mJ), and the topimabur stalk pellet had the highest value (P5- 489.53). The addition of coniferous sawdust in the case of the sunflower stalk pellet (P2) and tobacco stalk pellet (P4) slightly increased the value of the tested parameter. On the other hand, for the pellet made of Jerusalem artichoke stems with the addition of sawdust (P6), a decrease in the value of energy needed to destroy this pellet was noted in relation to the pellet produced from 100% raw material stalks (P5).
The relative deformation values of the tested pellets, up to the moment of destruction, were diversified. The highest values of this parameter were recorded for pellets made of sunflower stalks in 100% (P1) and 50% (P2). The lowest level of deformation was found for pellets made of 100% tobacco stalks (P3) and 50% of coniferous sawdust (P4).
The type of material used to produce pellets, the addition of a binder, and the water content affect, in particular, affect their mechanical properties [18].
According to research by Grycova et al. [19], pellets containing pyrolytic carbon are more durable than pellets made of compost or spruce sawdust. This is due to the presence of starch, which acts as a binder in the pelletization process. In addition, the researchers found that the addition of coniferous sawdust has a positive effect on the hardness of the tested pellets. Pellets made of 100% spruce sawdust turned out to be the hardest among the tested fuels. Gorzelany et al. [17], when examining pellets made of coniferous and deciduous sawdust and durable beech wood, noted the destructive force for the tested materials in the range from 166 N to 654 N. Serrano et al. [20] observed that the mechanical strength of barley straw pellets increased after adding coniferous sawdust. Research by Harum and Afzal [21] shows that the mechanical durability of pellets from a mixture of different types of agricultural biomass is higher than pellets made of one type of agricultural biomass and are comparable to wood biomass pellets.

3.2. Measurement of Mechanical Properties during Storage

The average values of the destructive force Fmax of the analyzed pellets with a diameter of 6 mm, during the 90-day storage period, increased. The sunflower stalk pellet (P1) was characterized by the lowest value of destructive force at the set dates of mechanical properties measurement. For pellets made of tobacco stalks (P3), a higher value of destructive force was noted compared to pellets made of sunflower stalks (P1). During the storage of pellets, pellets made of Jerusalem artichoke stalks (P5) turned out to be the most resistant to external loads. The value of the destructive force for this type of fuel was 1 697.69 N. The addition of coniferous sawdust in the case of sunflower (P2) and tobacco (P4) stems improved the damage resistance of the tested solid fuels in comparison with pellets made of the same raw materials but without the admixture of coniferous sawdust (P1 and P3). On the other hand, the addition of coniferous sawdust to Jerusalem artichoke stalks reduced the destructive force of this type of fuel (P6) in comparison with pellets made of 100% raw material stalks (P5).
Pellets stored outdoors are exposed to the weather, even if they are placed under roofs [22]. The relative humidity present in the air increases the humidity of the pellets, which affects their durability and mechanical properties. Pellets then become less resistant to bending, and their abrasion and dust content increase [22,23]. Chico Santamarta et al. [24] noted that storing rapeseed straw pellets in hermetically sealed bags for 48 weeks in an unheated barn decreased their length and durability. Kymalainen et al. [25] conducted research on the impact of storage conditions in the atmospheric conditions of Finland on the quality of pellets. When storing wood pellets for a period of five months in mesh bags with a capacity of 0.5–1 L, both in the open air and under cover, they observed a decrease in the durability of these pellets.
In addition, the quality of pellets is determined by the calorific value, ash content, volatile compounds, chemical composition, and exhaust gas emission. Tests determining the quality of solid fuels were performed similarly to mechanical tests 24 h after pellet production.

3.3. Results of Calorimetric and Thermogravimetric Tests

Table 3 presents data on the percentage of ash and volatile substances in pellets produced from plant cultivation waste for industrial purposes and their calorific value. The lowest ash content-2.92% was found in pellets made of 50% tobacco stalks and 50% coniferous sawdust (P4). The highest amount of ash was recorded in the pellet composed of 100% tobacco stalk biomass (P3). In the tested pellets, the use of an admixture of coniferous sawdust reduced the ash content in the tested solid fuels—in the case of sunflower by about 14.97% (P1 and P2), tobacco by 39.92% (P3 and P4), and Jerusalem artichoke by 24.43 % (P5 and P6), compared to pellets made of 100% of these materials.
The highest amount of volatile compounds was recorded for the pellet consisting of 100% sunflower stalks (P1), with a value of 79.14%. The least volatile compounds were formed during the combustion of a mixture of Jerusalem artichoke and coniferous sawdust (P6) in the ratio of 50%:50%. In the case of sunflower (P2) and Jerusalem artichoke (P4) biomass pellets, the addition of coniferous sawdust reduced the amount of volatile compounds compared to pellets made of 100% of these materials (P1 and P3). On the other hand, for tobacco stalk pellets, the addition of coniferous sawdust (P4) caused an increase in the amount of volatile compounds by 1.07% compared to pellets whose 100% composition was tobacco stalk biomass (P3).
The calorific value of the tested pellets ranged from 16.35 MJ·kg−1 to 17.70 MJ·kg−1 (Table 2). The addition of sawdust slightly reduced the calorific value of pellets made of sunflower biomass and tobacco (P2 and P4). In the case of topinambour biomass, the addition of coniferous sawdust (P6) increased the calorific value by 1.85% compared to pellets made of 100% topinambour biomass (P5).The calorific value of the waste generated during the production of sunflower seeds ranges from 13 to 17.5 MJ·kg−1. For the moisture content of fuels produced from this waste at the level of 9.1 to 11.6%, the ash content ranges from 1.7 to 3.8%, and the volatile substances from 70.4 to 77.1%. Waste from sunflower production has promising properties to be used as fuel for renewable energy [26]. Solid biofuels are characterized by a high content (on average, 67%) of volatile matter [27]. Test results for tobacco pellets indicate that this type of pellet has 87.75% volatile substances [28]. In turn, other scientists recorded the ash content of 14.67% for tobacco stem pellets and 64.54% of volatile compounds [29]. Gorzelany et al. [17], examining wood biomass pellets, found the ash content at the level of 0.31 to 0.56% and the calorific value in the range of 17.17 to 19.18 MJ·kg−1.
The level of total nitrogen in the analyzed samples ranged from 0.42% to 1.70%. Pellets with 50% sawdust were characterized by a lower nitrogen content compared to pellets consisting of 100% biomass of sunflower, Jerusalem artichoke, and tobacco. Total carbon content was not diversified, considering different types of tested materials and different compositions of pellets. The addition of coniferous sawdust did not significantly change the carbon content in the tested pellets. The amount of hydrogen in the tested samples did not differ significantly. The addition of sawdust slightly increased the hydrogen content in the tested biomass of the analyzed pellets (Table 4).
The content of nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen, and waste agricultural biomass for the production of pellets is diversified. The bagasse used to make pellets contains 45.05% carbon, 11.8% hydrogen, and 0.2% nitrogen. On the other hand, corn cobs contain 37.35% carbon, 14.4% hydrogen, and 0.2% nitrogen [30]. The chemical composition of pellets produced from sunflower husks was varied. The carbon content ranged from 42.1 to 69.8%, nitrogen ranged from 0.33 to 9.1%, and hydrogen ranged from 5.17–8.80 [31,32,33]. Research by scientists has shown that tobacco stem pellets contain 40.54% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 1.28% nitrogen [29]. In turn, pellets made of hazelnut tree biomass had a carbon content of 45.07%, hydrogen 6.97%, and nitrogen 0.77%. The solid fuel produced from olive tree pruning waste contained 55.02% carbon, 5.42% hydrogen, and 1.24% nitrogen [34]. According to Nussbaumer [35], the nitrogen content in biomass (cereal straw, grass, fruit processing waste) above 0.6% indicates that excessive emission of NOx into the atmosphere will occur in the case of biomass combustion.
Table 5 presents the average values of gases emitted during the combustion of pellets produced from agricultural waste biomass created during the cultivation of plants for industrial purposes.
When analyzing the results of the research, certain dependencies were observed. The addition of coniferous sawdust reduced the amount of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and sulfur oxide emitted, and increased the emission of nitrogen oxides. In the case of carbon monoxide, the lowest emissions were recorded for tobacco stalk pellets and coniferous sawdust (P4). The highest emissions were from pellets made of 100% sunflower stalks (P1). The same dependence was observed when analyzing the results for carbon dioxide. On the other hand, the emission of sulfur dioxide was the highest for pellets made of tobacco stalks (P3), and the lowest for pellets consisting of a mixture of Jerusalem artichoke stalks and coniferous sawdust (P6). In the case of nitrogen oxides, the emission exceeded 120 mg·m−3 for two variants (P2 and P6). The smallest amount of nitrogen oxides was recorded in the case of combustion of pellets made of tobacco stalks (P3) (Table 5).
In the case of waste from agricultural production, the emission of nitrogen oxides at the level of about 50 mg·m−3, nitrogen dioxide at the level of 1.5%, and carbon monoxide at about 300 mg·m−3 was recorded [36]. During the incineration of waste in the form of sunflower husk, the emission of sulfur dioxide was recorded at 0.289 mg·m−3, nitrogen oxides at 122.65 mg·m−3 and carbon monoxide at 118.85 mg·m−3. In addition, the combustion of coniferous sawdust showed an increase in the emission of nitrogen oxides and a decrease in the emission of sulfur and carbon oxides compared to the emission during the combustion of agricultural waste biomass, such as sunflower husk or rapeseed straw [37]. Coniferous wood waste is characterized by a smaller amount of nitrogen oxides emitted into the atmosphere during combustion compared to deciduous wood waste. During the combustion of pellets from pine wood waste, 30% less nitrogen oxides were emitted into the atmosphere compared to the combustion of pellets from deciduous wood waste [38].
According to Ozgen et al. [39] and Nussbaumer [35] during the combustion of biomass, the nitrogen contained in it is almost completely converted into gaseous nitrogen (N2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)-nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Numerous studies [40,41,42] have shown that the formation of nitrogen oxides is highly differentiated and depends on the type of combustion boiler and the type of fuel. Nitrogen oxides can be produced by the reaction of nitrogen with reactive oxygen species at temperatures >1300 °C [43]. Due to the relatively low temperature in solid biofuel combustion installations (about 800–1200 °C), the thermal NOx formation is transient and of little importance. In addition, nitrogen oxides NOx are formed as a result of fuel oxidation. This is the most critical mechanism for the formation of nitrogen oxides during biomass combustion. Therefore, NOx emission increases with the nitrogen content in the fuel [39], which is important when burning nitrogen-containing biomass [39,44]. In addition, the automatic fuel feeder, the geometry of the boiler chamber, and the type of combustion technology are the main variables affecting the formation of NOx [45]. Eskilsson et al. [46] report that reducing excess air can help reduce NOx emissions and increase carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. Nussbaumer [35] also reports that pollutants such as NOx and particulate matter are caused by fuel components such as N, K, Cl, Ca, Na, Mg, P and S, therefore biomass heating devices have relatively high NOx emissions.

4. Conclusions

The results of analyses for pellets presented in this work indicate that this type of waste biomass can be used to heat houses or produce energy. The results of mechanical properties tests (e.g., destructive force in the range of 601.53 N–1 591.45 N) indicate that each type of tested pellet is of appropriate quality for storage, transport, and use in central heating furnaces with automatic feeding. During the 90-day period of storage of the analyzed pellets in perforated bags under fixed conditions, a slight increase in their resistance to damage was noted. In addition, the results of calorimetric tests inform about the high quality of the tested solid fuels. Ash content for all types of tested pellets below 5%, calorific value above 16.5 MJ·kg−1 are the parameters confirming the high quality of the tested solid fuels. In addition, the results regarding the amount of gases emitted during the combustion of the tested pellets, in particular nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide, are consistent with the applicable emission standards for fuels produced from solid biomass in the European Union.
The use of waste biomass generated during the cultivation of plants for industrial purposes can be a good solution for both small home installations and professional power engineering. The presented results require further research to gain broader knowledge on the possibility of obtaining this type of waste biomass on a larger scale and to disseminate information on the high quality of the tested fuels.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization M.Z; J.G.; methodology M.B. and M.Z.; formal analysis M.B. and M.Z.; writing—original draft preparation M.Z.; investigation J.G. and C.P.; visualization M.Z.; supervision, J.G. and C.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table
Table 1. Average values of selected mechanical properties of tested samples of plant biomass (pellets) in the process of their uniaxial compression (in the horizontal axis).
Table 1. Average values of selected mechanical properties of tested samples of plant biomass (pellets) in the process of their uniaxial compression (in the horizontal axis).
The Type of
Pellets		Fmax
[N]		W to Fmax
(mJ)		Relative Deformation
Ԑ
P1601.53 a ± 258.85147.13 a ± 65.650.18 a ± 0.08
P2633.17 a ± 106.08214.67 b ± 73.950.19 a ± 0.06
P3784.45 a ± 161.15317.49 a ± 80.770.05 a ± 0.02
P4788.71 a ± 172.09347.87 a ± 73.630.06 a ± 0.02
P51591.45 b ± 240.68489.53 b ± 57.870.07 a ± 0.01
P61119.95 a ± 199.44429.11 a ± 71.850.09 a ± 0.02
Statistically significant differences marked by different letters (p ≤ 0.05). The data were analyzed separately for each type of materials.
Table
Table 2. Average values of the destructive force of the tested samples of plant biomass (pellets) in the process of their uniaxial compression (in the horizontal axis) during storage.
Table 2. Average values of the destructive force of the tested samples of plant biomass (pellets) in the process of their uniaxial compression (in the horizontal axis) during storage.
The Type
of Pellets		F [N]
Time of Storage [days]
306090
P1621.43 a ± 141.12645.47 a ± 135.45656.13 a ± 112.96
P2672.12 a ± 137.45699.99 a ± 149.78704.49 a ± 138.46
P3805.34 a ± 199.45845.64 a ± 112.12852.89 a ± 121.14
P4827.46 a ± 126.78865.47 a ± 114.69870.71 a ± 107.78
P51650.12 b ± 170.891680.52 b ± 101.891697.69 b ± 110.74
P61267.09 a ± 190.781285.36 a ± 110.141292.23 a ± 170.14
Statistically significant differences marked by different letters (p ≤ 0.05). The data were analyzed separately for each type of materials.
Table
Table 3. Average values of ash, volatile compounds, and calorific value of the analyzed types of pellets.
Table 3. Average values of ash, volatile compounds, and calorific value of the analyzed types of pellets.
The Type of PelletsAsh Content
[%]		Volatile Compounds
[%]		Calorific Value
[MJ·kg−1]
P14.14 b ± 0.2479.14 a ± 0.1116.72 a ± 0.06
P23.52 a ± 0.1178.35 a ± 0.2616.35 a ± 0.04
P34.86 b ± 0.2876.99 a ± 0.1717.70 a ± 0.13
P42.92 a ± 0.1978.06 b ± 0.1917.30 a ± 0.12
P54.01 b ± 0.1778.47 b ± 0.3517.21 a ± 0.11
P63.03 a ± 0.0776.54 a ± 0.3817.53 a ± 0.17
Statistically significant differences marked by different letters (p ≤ 0.05). The data were analyzed separately for each type of materials.
Table
Table 4. Average values of nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen for the tested pellets.
Table 4. Average values of nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen for the tested pellets.
The Type of PelletsNitrogen [%]Carbon [%]Hydrogen [%]
P11.70 b ± 0.04 44.25 a ± 0.116.46 a ± 0.16
P20.47 a ± 0.0744.32 a ± 0.086.53 a ± 0.28
P31.62 b ± 0.05 45.21 a ± 0.10 6.02 a ± 0.18
P40.42 a ± 0.0745.41 a ± 0.136.21 a ± 0.22
P50.99 b ± 0.2446.37 a ± 0.195.90 a ± 0.14
P60.51 a ± 0.1746.38 a ± 0.136.19 a ± 0.17
Statistically significant differences marked by different letters (p ≤ 0.05). The data were analyzed separately for each type of materials.
Table
Table 5. Average values of gases emitted during the combustion of pellets.
Table 5. Average values of gases emitted during the combustion of pellets.
The Type
of Pellets		CO
[mg·m−3]		CO2
[%]		SO2
[mg·m−3]		NOx
[mg·m−3]
P1114.23 b ± 2.71.96 a ± 0.075.42 b ± 0.1462.14 a ± 1.9
P290.12 a ± 3.31.72 a ± 0.092.02 a ± 0.15 129.45 b ± 2.9
P375.61 b ± 3.51.42 a ± 0.086.01 b ± 0.1745.56 a ± 2.5
P459.81 a ± 2.21.22 a ± 0.101.88 a ± 0.1178.94 b ± 1.6
P581.92 b ± 2.41.57 a ± 0.095.88 b ± 0.1982.24 a ± 1.7
P666.90 a ± 1.91.39 a ± 0.091.94 a ± 0.16 121.21 b ± 2.1
Statistically significant differences marked by different letters (p ≤ 0.05). The data were analyzed separately for each type of materials.
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Zardzewiały, M.; Bajcar, M.; Puchalski, C.; Gorzelany, J. The Possibility of Using Waste Biomass from Selected Plants Cultivated for Industrial Purposes to Produce a Renewable and Sustainable Source of Energy. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3195. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053195

AMA Style

Zardzewiały M, Bajcar M, Puchalski C, Gorzelany J. The Possibility of Using Waste Biomass from Selected Plants Cultivated for Industrial Purposes to Produce a Renewable and Sustainable Source of Energy. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(5):3195. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053195

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zardzewiały, Miłosz, Marcin Bajcar, Czesław Puchalski, and Józef Gorzelany. 2023. "The Possibility of Using Waste Biomass from Selected Plants Cultivated for Industrial Purposes to Produce a Renewable and Sustainable Source of Energy" Applied Sciences 13, no. 5: 3195. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053195

APA Style

Zardzewiały, M., Bajcar, M., Puchalski, C., & Gorzelany, J. (2023). The Possibility of Using Waste Biomass from Selected Plants Cultivated for Industrial Purposes to Produce a Renewable and Sustainable Source of Energy. Applied Sciences, 13(5), 3195. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053195

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