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Volume 13
Issue 6
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Religions, Volume 13, Issue 6 (June 2022) – 99 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The position called “process theism” is seldom used by Charles Hartshorne; the label he typically uses is “neoclassical theism”. Process theism is utilized to accentuate the differences between this metaphysical view and an opposing metaphysical stance, that of traditional theism. On the contrary, neoclassical theism is utilized not to accentuate differences but rather to include one metaphysical tradition within another. Three different topics will be emphasized in this defense: The first is the contrast between monopolar and dipolar metaphysics. The second is a commonplace in “process” thought which relies on Plato’s Sophist (247e), where it is suggested that being is power or dynamism. The third is Whiteheadian prehension, wherein a metaphysical thinker in the present can include the best insights from previous traditions and partially transform them. View this paper
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33 pages, 21661 KiB  
Article
‘Behold the Wounds on Christ’: Crucifixion Imagery in Late Medieval Ireland
by Karen Ralph
Religions 2022, 13(6), 570; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060570 - 20 Jun 2022
Viewed by 5347
Abstract
Crucifixion scenes in late medieval Ireland, as was typical elsewhere in Europe at the time, largely present a pitiful image of a wounded and tortured Christ. This paper examines the iconography of these scenes across various media including manuscript illumination and sculpture in [...] Read more.
Crucifixion scenes in late medieval Ireland, as was typical elsewhere in Europe at the time, largely present a pitiful image of a wounded and tortured Christ. This paper examines the iconography of these scenes across various media including manuscript illumination and sculpture in stone and metalwork from the late fourteenth to the mid sixteenth century. The iconography is situated within the wider European artistic tradition and within the context of contemporary religious sentiment in Ireland as expressed through the literature and material culture. Finally, the interaction between image/object and the viewer is explored, and it is proposed that such imagery encouraged and often required an active rather than passive participation on behalf of the devotee. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Representations and Interpretations of the Passion and Death of Christ: Global Perspectives)
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32 pages, 8492 KiB  
Article
An Early Medieval Śaiva Pilgrimage Landscape: The Persistence of Pampa and Bhairava in the Hemakuta Hill Sacred Space, 800–1325 CE
by Candis Haak
Religions 2022, 13(6), 569; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060569 - 20 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3018
Abstract
The early medieval Pampa tirtha (pilgrimage), in the Hampi area, Bellary District, Karnataka, South India, is largely presented in research as a relatively homogenous, albeit sacred space. This paper describes a nuanced understanding of the Pampa tirtha through the lens of spatial organization [...] Read more.
The early medieval Pampa tirtha (pilgrimage), in the Hampi area, Bellary District, Karnataka, South India, is largely presented in research as a relatively homogenous, albeit sacred space. This paper describes a nuanced understanding of the Pampa tirtha through the lens of spatial organization and pilgrim movement. The natural and built landscape features of the area were digitized through Esri’s ArcMap to historically situate extant stone monuments. Devotee movement through the pilgrimage space was then modelled on time-sensitive maps of architectural and natural features. Pathways of movement across the site were subsequently explored in the immersive panoramic imagery captured in Google Street View. By combining these digital tools, a historicized analysis of the character and qualities of place, born from the organization of the site, are identifiable. The results demonstrate how devotees moved through a network of distinct nodes of shrines, temples, and gateways. Each node possessed a unique relationship to microtopographic features of the hill, and to the earliest deities of the site that originally anchored and oriented the sacred space: Pampa and Bhairava. The pilgrimage space that developed between these two deities was tied together through a path of movement, running south to north. Trends of re-ordering the Pampa tirtha spatial network also reveal patron and artisan mechanisms to privilege and prioritize the 12th-century addition of the god Virupaksha into the sacred space. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hindu and Buddhist Pilgrimage: The Persistence of Place)
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11 pages, 267 KiB  
Article
Shirley Caesar and the Politics of Validating Sexual Agency
by Angela Marie Nelson
Religions 2022, 13(6), 568; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060568 - 20 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3130
Abstract
Black gospelwoman and pastor Shirley Ann Caesar Williams, better known as “Shirley Caesar” to her listeners over the last several decades, entered a professionalization phase of her ministry and career from 1958 to 1966 when she joined and performed with The Caravans. Being [...] Read more.
Black gospelwoman and pastor Shirley Ann Caesar Williams, better known as “Shirley Caesar” to her listeners over the last several decades, entered a professionalization phase of her ministry and career from 1958 to 1966 when she joined and performed with The Caravans. Being a Caravan member brought with it the possibility of being in compromising situations while on the road, which would expose Caesar—a Black woman—to the possibility of sexual (and racial) violence. Caesar’s first night as a Caravan in 1958 provided such a circumstance, a failed sexual advance that she describes in Chapter 5, “On the Road with the Caravans”, of her 1998 autobiography, The Lady, the Melody, and the Word. Caesar’s identities (Black, woman, Christian, chaste) intersecting with a potential sexual advance and her reaction to it is fodder for the reinforcement of Black male authority, power, privilege, and dominance in the Black Sanctified Church as well as the assertion of sexual agency. Today Caesar continues to shape her complex public identity born out of a set of negotiations embracing and challenging specific gendered, racial, sexual, and religious norms, the conditions of Black and white mobility, and patterns of religious authority. However, for her, religious authority remains paramount. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Gender and Sexuality)
10 pages, 291 KiB  
Article
Memory of Oneself, Memory of God
by Enrique Martínez
Religions 2022, 13(6), 567; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060567 - 20 Jun 2022
Viewed by 2062
Abstract
Knowledge and love, as well as intellect and will, while remaining distinct, must be understood in man as being intrinsically related on account of his being ordained to a single ultimate end. This responds to the substantial inclination that every human being has [...] Read more.
Knowledge and love, as well as intellect and will, while remaining distinct, must be understood in man as being intrinsically related on account of his being ordained to a single ultimate end. This responds to the substantial inclination that every human being has for synthesis, for intimate unity. One of the clearest examples of this spirit of synthesis can be recognized in the teaching of Saint Thomas Aquinas; for example, in his attitude of assimilation of the doctrines of many authors, mainly Aristotle and Saint Augustine. We will try to show how, in the thought of Aquinas, faithful to his Augustinian heritage, will and intellect find their rootedness in the memory of oneself, based on the doctrine of the created good according to mode, species, and order. In this the mind is the image of God, to which man is ordered by knowledge and love. Therefore, we can conclude that the memory of oneself is memory of God. We will follow the teachings of the main representatives of the Thomistic School of Barcelona. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Theologies)
5 pages, 186 KiB  
Editorial
Introduction: The Charisma of Liturgy in the Middle Ages
by Jaume Aurell
Religions 2022, 13(6), 566; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060566 - 19 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1642
Abstract
This collective volume is devoted to the various manifestations of liturgy in the Middle Ages, based on a great variety and wealth of primary sources [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Liturgy in the Middle Ages)
19 pages, 327 KiB  
Article
‘Small Fires Causing Large Fires’: An Analysis of Boko Haram Terrorism–Insurgency in Nigeria
by Benson Ohihon Igboin
Religions 2022, 13(6), 565; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060565 - 17 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2652
Abstract
Since July 2009, when the popular founder of Boko Haram, Mohammed Yusuf, was extrajudicially killed by the police, the group has become radicalised. Boko Haram started by terrorising the country, particularly the northeastern zone, which extends to Cameroon, Niger, and Lake Chad. Several [...] Read more.
Since July 2009, when the popular founder of Boko Haram, Mohammed Yusuf, was extrajudicially killed by the police, the group has become radicalised. Boko Haram started by terrorising the country, particularly the northeastern zone, which extends to Cameroon, Niger, and Lake Chad. Several works on the group, mostly by foreign commentators and scholars, have mainly attributed its rise to political and economic factors. Many of those works have not also recognised the metamorphosis from terrorism to insurgency, wherein the group is now replacing the secular status of Nigeria’s configuration with a monolithic Islamic caliphal rule in the swathes of land that it has captured. Even though the Nigerian government has adopted the factors canvassed by those scholars and also denies the group an ideological anchorage, I argue that Boko Haram’s ideological scaffolding is hinged on ultra-jihadi Salafism. Relying on qualitative sources, I employ a historical and interpretive framework in explicating the origin of Boko Haram and in content analysing President Muhammad Buhari’s 2015 inaugural speech, which denies the group of any ideological leaning on Islam. I then contend that such a denial has made counter-insurgency measures of the government counter-productive, as efforts at meeting political and economic factors are difficult to achieve in the present circumstance. I, therefore, recommend counter-insurgency measures, which include, amongst others, Western education, Islamic de-radicalisation processes, and counter-insurgency narratives, as well as ideas to cut off the recruitment of youth into the group and military engagement, as both short- and long-term strategies. Full article
17 pages, 236 KiB  
Article
Baptists in Scotland and Their Publications in the Long 20th Century
by Brian R. Talbot
Religions 2022, 13(6), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060564 - 17 Jun 2022
Viewed by 2101
Abstract
The impression is given in studies of theological books published in Scotland in the long twentieth-century that Scottish Baptists produced few significant works of academic scholarship. There is also no indication of any significant contribution made by more popular studies in theology or [...] Read more.
The impression is given in studies of theological books published in Scotland in the long twentieth-century that Scottish Baptists produced few significant works of academic scholarship. There is also no indication of any significant contribution made by more popular studies in theology or in church history. There is no doubt that only a very small number of scholars from this constituency have produced notable works in the fields of biblical studies missiology or theology, though a much larger number of works were produced for the benefit of the members of Christian congregations in this country. In the field of church history, very few works were published in the first half of the twentieth century, but by contrast, an increasing number of authors contributed to a flourishing area of studies in more recent decades. However, this study seeks to demonstrate that far more books were published than had been expected, and further studies are likely to increase this total in due course. It will be argued that Scottish Baptists, therefore, made a small but also significant contribution to both academic and more popular publishing in these fields in the long twentieth century. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Christianity in Scotland in the Long 20th Century)
15 pages, 266 KiB  
Article
Recapturing the Oral Tradition of Storytelling in Spiritual Conversations with Older Adults: An Afro-Indigenous Approach
by Florence Akumu Juma
Religions 2022, 13(6), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060563 - 17 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3532
Abstract
The historical value of the oral tradition permeates literature as represented in multiple disciplines, including theology. An aspect of this tradition has proven viable in spiritual conversations with older adults. This paper will discuss the oral tradition’s medium of storytelling and listening to [...] Read more.
The historical value of the oral tradition permeates literature as represented in multiple disciplines, including theology. An aspect of this tradition has proven viable in spiritual conversations with older adults. This paper will discuss the oral tradition’s medium of storytelling and listening to demonstrate its relevance in therapeutic conversations with older adults. Therapeutic storytelling is a distinct intervention prevalent in the African oral tradition This approach is also gaining attention in the contemporary context, blending seamlessly within the narrative approach. Using the quantitative research method of ethnography and autoethnography, I analyze specific therapeutic encounters that employ a storytelling/listening approach in spiritual conversations. The analysis reveals the relevance of storytelling in specific therapeutic encounters. Storytelling is gaining interest and reclaiming space in therapeutic settings with diverse populations, but mostly with older adults. The study also highlights the apparent similarities between the traditional approach to storytelling and the narrative approach in the contemporary therapeutic milieu. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spirituality and Aging: Finding Meaning in the Context of Personal and Societal Change)
9 pages, 228 KiB  
Article
Going to the Morgue with Andres Serrano: Provocation as Revelation
by Alex Sosler
Religions 2022, 13(6), 562; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060562 - 17 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2998
Abstract
Originally displayed in Paula Cooper Gallery in New York City’s SoHo district, Andres Serrano’s The Morgue series continued the artist’s controversial and transgressive work. Set against a black backdrop in a mortuary, he photographed dead bodies in different stages of decomposition. In this [...] Read more.
Originally displayed in Paula Cooper Gallery in New York City’s SoHo district, Andres Serrano’s The Morgue series continued the artist’s controversial and transgressive work. Set against a black backdrop in a mortuary, he photographed dead bodies in different stages of decomposition. In this article, I borrow from Charles Taylor’s cultural analysis of the secular and Flannery O’Connor’s literary theory of the revelatory power of the grotesque to discuss Serrano’s artistic choices. In essence, I argue that his work is not a desecration of humanity but a stark reminder of the sacralization of humanity. As such, Serrano’s work is not provocative for provocation’s sake, but a provocation to poke holes in a disenchanted age. Underneath Serrano’s images is the question: if this is a heap of flesh, why are you provoked? In a culture that avoids death at all costs, Serrano reminds the contemporary world of their mortality with an updated form of memento mori art. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conceptual Art and Theology)
21 pages, 530 KiB  
Article
Sexual Complexity: A Comparison between Men and Women in a Sexual Minority Sample of Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
by William S. Bradshaw, John P. Dehlin and Renee V. Galliher
Religions 2022, 13(6), 561; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060561 - 17 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3324
Abstract
We report here some of the results from an online survey of 1612 LGBTQ members and former members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (CJCLDS, Mormon). The data permitted an exploration of diversity—individual similarities and differences within and between the [...] Read more.
We report here some of the results from an online survey of 1612 LGBTQ members and former members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (CJCLDS, Mormon). The data permitted an exploration of diversity—individual similarities and differences within and between the sexes. Men and women were compared with respect to sexual identity self-labeling and behavior (i.e., identity development, disclosure, activity), orientation change efforts, marital relationships, and psychosocial health—these variables in the context of their religious lives. More women than men self-identified in the bisexual range of the sexual attraction continuum. Both men and women had engaged in extensive effort to change their sexual orientation. Only about 4% of the respondents claimed that those efforts had been successful, and the claims were for outcomes other than an alteration in erotic feeling. In general, only those who identified as bisexual reported success in maintaining a mixed-orientation marriage and continuing activity in the church. For both men and women, measures of psychosocial and sexual health were higher for those in same-sex relationships and those disaffiliated from the church. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Gender and Sexuality)
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22 pages, 1365 KiB  
Article
Exploring Motivation and Engagement: Voices of Adolescent Non-Arab Muslim Learners of Arabic at Australian Islamic Schools
by Nadia Selim and Mohamad Abdalla
Religions 2022, 13(6), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060560 - 16 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2884
Abstract
This article explores the motivation and engagement of adolescent non-Arab Muslim learners of Arabic (a-MLA) enrolled at Australian Islamic Schools (AIS). To this end, the ‘L2 Motivational Self System’ was used as a theoretical lens. This research gives ‘voice’ to learners and is [...] Read more.
This article explores the motivation and engagement of adolescent non-Arab Muslim learners of Arabic (a-MLA) enrolled at Australian Islamic Schools (AIS). To this end, the ‘L2 Motivational Self System’ was used as a theoretical lens. This research gives ‘voice’ to learners and is dialogic, ‘speaking with’ rather than ‘speaking for’ learners in Islamic schools. It also responds to calls for the ‘renewal’ of Islamic Schools in the Western context, including in Australia, through a focus on Arabic learning. A basic interpretive qualitative approach was used, and data were collected from 40 participants using semi-structured interviews. The interviews were supplemented by classroom observations. In keeping with the emphasis placed on learners’ voices, the data presented focus on the students’ own words and perspectives. The findings suggest the presence of predominantly religious orientations to learning Arabic, but that a subset of other orientations also exists. The findings also indicate that several contextual factors can lead to disengagement and that the L2 Motivational Self System might not fully explain the situation of these learners. Nonetheless, these findings can inform the practice of teachers engaged with a-MLA and provide grounds for further research. Full article
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12 pages, 699 KiB  
Article
Looking beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic: Congregants’ Expectations of Future Online Religious Service Attendance
by Christopher Justin Jacobi, Maria Andronicou and Brandon Vaidyanathan
Religions 2022, 13(6), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060559 - 16 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2081
Abstract
Many religious congregations in the United States have adapted to COVID-19 lockdowns by offering religious services online. This study aims to understand whether congregants from a diverse set of faith traditions expect to attend online or in-person religious services after the pandemic. First, [...] Read more.
Many religious congregations in the United States have adapted to COVID-19 lockdowns by offering religious services online. This study aims to understand whether congregants from a diverse set of faith traditions expect to attend online or in-person religious services after the pandemic. First, it examines how members of different religious traditions vary in their expectations of future attendance. Second, it explores whether respondents’ habituation to online attendance during the pandemic might result in greater preference for future online attendance. This study draws on a non-representative sample of 1609 members of Christian, Jewish, and Hindu communities in four US states surveyed in late 2020 and employs logistic regression models. The findings first suggest a divergence between congregation types that require in-person attendance for certain rituals versus those that do not. Second, habituation of the practice of online attendance may cultivate the desire to sustain this practice into the future. Online religious services have been well received by most congregants, and online services will likely play a useful role across congregation types, albeit at differing levels and with different audiences. Our finding that marginal congregants were more likely to prefer online religious services, while more engaged members preferred in-person attendance, is of relevance to faith leaders. Full article
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21 pages, 344 KiB  
Article
Freedom of Conscience of Healthcare Professionals and Conscientious Objection in the European Court of Human Rights
by María José Valero
Religions 2022, 13(6), 558; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060558 - 16 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2896
Abstract
The recent social and legal debate in several European countries on abortion, euthanasia, and assisted suicide has caused a strong resurgence of the concerns of healthcare personnel as to the real possibility of protecting their consciences in their professional sphere. Individual refusal for [...] Read more.
The recent social and legal debate in several European countries on abortion, euthanasia, and assisted suicide has caused a strong resurgence of the concerns of healthcare personnel as to the real possibility of protecting their consciences in their professional sphere. Individual refusal for religious, moral, deontological, or ethical reasons to participate in activities that directly or indirectly could result in the termination of a human life constitutes the most extreme manifestation of the legal phenomenon of conscientious objection. Although the European Convention on Human Rights does not recognize a general right to conscientious objection, since Bayatyan v. Armenia, the case law of the European Court of Human Rights has identified a connection between conscience-related claims to compulsory military service and Article 9 of the Convention. However, to this date, this doctrine has not been applied to cases that affect health-sensitive areas like abortion and contraception. This article analyzes the activity of the European Court of Human Rights in relation to the right to freedom of conscience and to conscientious objection, particularly in healthcare, and offers several final observations projected to possible future conflicts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Change)
10 pages, 376 KiB  
Article
Just War and Anti-War: Two Stances of the Japanese Methodist Church toward the Russo-Japanese War
by Eun-young Park and Do-hyung Kim
Religions 2022, 13(6), 557; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060557 - 16 Jun 2022
Viewed by 1813
Abstract
If the Christian Church prioritizes its existence and expansion, it will turn to the entity that approves of it and protects it. When the Modern Japanese emperor’s state approached the church as his grace, the Japanese Christian Church showed its gratitude and pledged [...] Read more.
If the Christian Church prioritizes its existence and expansion, it will turn to the entity that approves of it and protects it. When the Modern Japanese emperor’s state approached the church as his grace, the Japanese Christian Church showed its gratitude and pledged its allegiance to the emperor. In the Sino-Japanese War, which assisted modern Japan in becoming an imperial-ist country, the Japanese Christian community was in favor of a war under the pretext of a “righteous war” to maintain a lasting peace in the East. However, during the Russo-Japanese War, when most of the Christians were actively in favor of the war, there were a few anti-war voices among small groups of Christians that had not been heard during the Sino-Japanese War. There was a tension that could not be easily resolved in the Japanese Christian Church. In particular, Gokyō, a Christian journal published by the Japanese Methodist Church, one of the major Protestant denominations, simultaneously presented two interesting and conflicting stances regarding the Russo-Japanese War (just war vs. anti-war). In this paper, we examine the diverging perspectives presented in Gokyō and explore various patterns of religion–war relations. Through this, we can see an example of two opposing arguments of just war and anti-war that coexisted and competed on the grounds of Christianity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Representations in and around War)
16 pages, 1783 KiB  
Article
Everyone’s Accountable? Peer Sexual Abuse in Religious Schools, Digital Revelations, and Denominational Contests over Protection
by Ben Kasstan
Religions 2022, 13(6), 556; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060556 - 16 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2446
Abstract
Since the emergence of the #MeToo and #ChurchToo movements, online tracts have been employed to publicly reveal experiences of sexual abuse and assault among women and men in religious institutions and to shame abusers, which tend to be examined as an issue of [...] Read more.
Since the emergence of the #MeToo and #ChurchToo movements, online tracts have been employed to publicly reveal experiences of sexual abuse and assault among women and men in religious institutions and to shame abusers, which tend to be examined as an issue of women’s rights or child protection from adult predators. Drawing on the use of digital reporting platforms to testify against peer offences within religious schools, this paper asks how do such testimonies reveal adolescent agency and provoke policy re/actions about the accountability of religious institutions? Digital revelations submitted anonymously to Everyone’s Invited are analysed alongside interviews conducted with educators, parents, and youths in Jewish schools in Britain. Findings indicate how adolescent digital revelations of peer sexual abuse call for accountability by implicating the faith schools in question, which in turn triggers pedagogical and policy debates from educators. Public responses reflect diverging denominational positions on how to balance the protection of young people and safeguard religious self-protectionism. The paper spotlights the agency of youth in shaming peer abusers as much as faith schools and structures of religious authority, and in turn, how online shaming reveals frictions over accountability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Youth and Religion)
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4 pages, 182 KiB  
Editorial
Introduction: Spirituality and Addiction
by Bernadette Flanagan and Noelia Molina
Religions 2022, 13(6), 555; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060555 - 16 Jun 2022
Viewed by 2277
Abstract
This collection of papers is inspired by years of collaboration in delivering academic programmes in Applied Spirituality [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spirituality and Addiction)
18 pages, 8612 KiB  
Article
A Golden Treasure from Korea: The Gilt-Bronze Bodhisattva Statue of Silla
by Young-ae Lim
Religions 2022, 13(6), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060554 - 16 Jun 2022
Viewed by 3447
Abstract
A gilt-bronze statue of a standing bodhisattva was discovered at the Sŏllimwŏn Temple site. The statue is notable as its halo and pedestal were found intact at the time of discovery, and the bodhisattva figure itself is almost perfectly preserved. There are only [...] Read more.
A gilt-bronze statue of a standing bodhisattva was discovered at the Sŏllimwŏn Temple site. The statue is notable as its halo and pedestal were found intact at the time of discovery, and the bodhisattva figure itself is almost perfectly preserved. There are only a few instances of gilt-bronze statues from the Unified Silla kingdom that can be definitively linked to the site of their original placement. Sŏllimwŏn was physically distant from the royal palace, but its status as a central temple of the Sŏn School 禪宗 and the activities of pre-eminent monks in the ninth century made it important enough to become the site for a splendid gilt-bronze bodhisattva statue. Based on physical, stylistic, and scientific evidence, the statue dates to the latter half of the ninth century and has ties to the Buddhist monk Master Honggak 弘覺禪師. A unique example of a gilt-bronze sculpture, the Sŏllimwŏn bodhisattva is a valuable part of Buddhist material culture in Korea. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)
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18 pages, 875 KiB  
Article
The Evolution of Chinese Muslim’s Classical Learning and Schools in the Ming and Qing Dynasties
by Wei Wang
Religions 2022, 13(6), 553; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060553 - 16 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2958
Abstract
Around the middle of the Ming Dynasty, with the Chinese language becoming the mother tongue of Muslims in mainland China, the religious education of Chinese Muslims faced a dilemma. Meanwhile, a rejuvenated educational system was established by Hu Dengzhou (胡登洲) in Shaanxi during [...] Read more.
Around the middle of the Ming Dynasty, with the Chinese language becoming the mother tongue of Muslims in mainland China, the religious education of Chinese Muslims faced a dilemma. Meanwhile, a rejuvenated educational system was established by Hu Dengzhou (胡登洲) in Shaanxi during the Wanli (萬歷) period. This system, which was called Jingtang education (經堂教育) after a long time, has epoch-making significance in the history of Chinese Islamic thought. Through Hu Dengzhou’s disciples, this educational system gradually spread to North China and Jiangnan, where Shandong School and Jinling School were formed. Sufism played an important role in the two early schools’ teaching arrangements and academic activities. In the middle and late Qing periods, Shaanxi School and Yunnan School emerged one after another. Scholars of these two schools paid more attention to rational sciences represented by philosophical theology and attempted to use theological theories to explain Sufi texts. Overall, the establishment of Jingtang education was not only an urgent requirement for Muslims in mainland China to explain Islamic classics in Chinese, but also a fruitful attempt to replace official schools with private schools. The early Shandong School and Jinling School attached great importance to Sufism for two reasons: (1) Sufism became a prominent study after the 12th century, and most of the teachers of early Jingtang education had a close relationship with the Sufis. (2) These scholars live in a Chinese cultural background with Neo-Confucianism as the mainstream, and there are many commonalities between Sufism and Confucianism, which helps Muslim scholars to use Confucian terms to explain Islamic teaching. In the later period, Shaanxi School and Yunnan School turned to pay more attention to philosophical theology for two reasons: (1) In order to deal with the emergence and ideological differences of Chinese Islamic sects in the mid-Qing era. (2) This change was not unrelated to the influence of the Shixue (實學) thought trends in China, especially the Qianjia School. Full article
10 pages, 260 KiB  
Article
Theological Valorization of the Other from an Orthodox Christian Perspective: Dorin Oancea’s Model of Theology of Religions in Relation to Social and Theological Developments of Modernity
by Alina Patru
Religions 2022, 13(6), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060552 - 15 Jun 2022
Viewed by 1762
Abstract
This paper analyzes the model of theology of religions elaborated by the Romanian Orthodox theologian Dorin Oancea and highlights the possibilities for openness towards other religious realms and for real theological validation of non-Christian religions. It focuses both on the modern premises of [...] Read more.
This paper analyzes the model of theology of religions elaborated by the Romanian Orthodox theologian Dorin Oancea and highlights the possibilities for openness towards other religious realms and for real theological validation of non-Christian religions. It focuses both on the modern premises of this model and on the ways in which the author ensures its continuity inside the Tradition and its acceptance within the Orthodox-Christian world. Dorin Oancea’s construct, a unique system of pluralistic inclusivism, elaborated by an Orthodox theologian who wants to remain aligned with the Eastern Orthodox patristic and traditional theological thinking while still addressing current topics by means of contemporary instruments and present-day language, is a valuable example of religious change that takes place within Orthodoxy, which is regarded as a traditional branch of Christianity. This paper identifies forms of theological newness in Dorin Oancea’s manner of addressing the challenges of present times in relation to the dynamics of the field of theology of religions and of Orthodox theology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Change)
11 pages, 252 KiB  
Article
Religious Freedom, Cybersecurity, and the Stability of Society: Problems and Perspectives from a European Perspective
by Piotr Roszak and Sasa Horvat
Religions 2022, 13(6), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060551 - 15 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2898
Abstract
Although religious freedom significantly affects certain people, the guarantees for its observance also have implications for the quality of social life and the security of the state. Polarization and conflict between religious groups is not only a conflict for new believers, but also [...] Read more.
Although religious freedom significantly affects certain people, the guarantees for its observance also have implications for the quality of social life and the security of the state. Polarization and conflict between religious groups is not only a conflict for new believers, but also contributes to the weakening of the internal state. It seems that one of the elements of such a destabilization of states is the promotion and lack of reaction to the phenomenon of ridiculing religion and its followers in cyberspace. As can be seen from reports on the situation in Poland, there are increasing signs of hostility to religion, stereotyping, and discrimination. The issues can be considered on two levels: individual protection for freedom of speech, and state protection. At the end of this paper, proposals for measures to prevent crimes based on religion or belief are presented. Full article
5 pages, 158 KiB  
Editorial
What the COVID-19 Pandemic Has Revealed about Religions
by Solange Lefebvre
Religions 2022, 13(6), 550; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060550 - 15 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1772
Abstract
The beginning of year 2020 will be remembered as a turning point within several societies [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pandemic, Religion and Non-religion)
15 pages, 282 KiB  
Article
Change: Thinking through Sāṅkhya
by Sthaneshwar Timalsina
Religions 2022, 13(6), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060549 - 15 Jun 2022
Viewed by 1818
Abstract
This paper explores the ways change is addressed in Sāṅkhya, one of the major Hindu schools of philosophy, specifically in light of the classical debate between Hindu and the Buddhist philosophers regarding intrinsic nature (svabhāva) and the concept of transformation ( [...] Read more.
This paper explores the ways change is addressed in Sāṅkhya, one of the major Hindu schools of philosophy, specifically in light of the classical debate between Hindu and the Buddhist philosophers regarding intrinsic nature (svabhāva) and the concept of transformation (pariṇāma). When we closely analyze Sāṅkhya categories, the issue of temporality stands out, because for Sāṅkhya philosophers time is not a distinct category and is infrequently addressed in classical Sāṅkhya. Nonetheless, we can still extract two different notions related to time, dynamism intrinsic to rajas, and temporality that is enclosed within the notion of space and spatial objects. What this implies is that the temporality implicit within the concept of change is only applicable to the last of the evolutes, according to Sāṅkhya cosmology. However, the Sāṅkhyan idea of 16 transformations (pariṇāma) applies to all categories, except puruṣa. By exploiting the parameters of these arguments, this paper makes the case for a closer analysis of the category of transformation in classical Sāṅkhya. Reading about change in the light of svabhāva, the intrinsic nature of an entity, versus the idea of its termination, allows us to have a wider conversation on what it means for something to change from within the Sāṅkhya paradigm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Continuity and Change according to Hindu and Buddhist Religious Philosophies)
20 pages, 6426 KiB  
Article
Mark’s Endings in Context: Paratexts and Codicological Remarks
by Mina Monier
Religions 2022, 13(6), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060548 - 14 Jun 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3223
Abstract
This article addresses the problem of the perception of Mark’s endings as expressed in its manuscript tradition. I will argue that, unlike the modern standardized image, manuscript evidence offers a complex phenomenon in which the endings were perceived in diverse ways that move [...] Read more.
This article addresses the problem of the perception of Mark’s endings as expressed in its manuscript tradition. I will argue that, unlike the modern standardized image, manuscript evidence offers a complex phenomenon in which the endings were perceived in diverse ways that move across the threshold that separates a text from paratexts. Further, the manuscripts show an influence between the endings and their associated paratexts. I will show this phenomenon by examining (i) the hypotheses before the Gospel, (ii) marginalia that engaged Mark 16, and (iii) postscripts after the Gospel. In conclusion, the article recommends revisiting the standard perception of the “endings” within their larger paratextual ecosystem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Titles, Paratexts, and Manuscript Communication: Jewish and Christian Literature in Material Context)
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10 pages, 223 KiB  
Article
A Liturgical Model for Worship in the Multireligious Context: A Case Study Based on the Interfaith Service Held on September 25, 2015, at 9/11 Museum in New York City
by Sunggu A. Yang
Religions 2022, 13(6), 547; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060547 - 14 Jun 2022
Viewed by 1992
Abstract
This article proposes a liturgical model for multireligious worship, namely the Pilgrim’s Service for the Ultimate Goodness of Humanity. Three key humanitarian liturgical principles buttress the proposed model; story-sharing, agreed symbols (metaphors), and de-centering. The model also proposes an overarching onto-narrative image—the pilgrim [...] Read more.
This article proposes a liturgical model for multireligious worship, namely the Pilgrim’s Service for the Ultimate Goodness of Humanity. Three key humanitarian liturgical principles buttress the proposed model; story-sharing, agreed symbols (metaphors), and de-centering. The model also proposes an overarching onto-narrative image—the pilgrim weaving and holding various liturgical threads as a whole. The end goals of this multireligious worship include, among others; (1) renewed awareness of the all-encompassing Transcendent and Its Peace, (2) interreligious dialogue and collaboration, (3) raised consciousness and the practice of radical hospitality for “strangers”, and (4) appreciation of the (religiously) marginalized. The interfaith service held on September 25, 2015, at the 9/11 Museum in New York City is analyzed and annotated, along with further suggestions, as a demonstration of the proposed model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multicultural Worship: Theory and Practice)
14 pages, 390 KiB  
Article
Description or Truth? A Typology of New Testament Theology
by Seth Heringer
Religions 2022, 13(6), 546; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060546 - 14 Jun 2022
Viewed by 2595
Abstract
This essay develops a typology to divide the overcrowded disciplinary space of New Testament theology into eight approaches based on subject matter. After describing and analyzing the approaches, it argues that descriptive New Testament theology becomes unworkable due to internal tensions. Next, it [...] Read more.
This essay develops a typology to divide the overcrowded disciplinary space of New Testament theology into eight approaches based on subject matter. After describing and analyzing the approaches, it argues that descriptive New Testament theology becomes unworkable due to internal tensions. Next, it evaluates a recent proposal by Robert Morgan for “implicit” theological interpretation in New Testament theology. After finding Morgan’s approach to insufficiently distinguish itself from a descriptive history-of-religions account, it argues that the future of New Testament theology must consist in a move away from description and toward a search for truth. It encourages Christians to read the New Testament in ways consistent with their own beliefs. The essay concludes by arguing that the future of New Testament theology is one of self-sacrifice in order that something better may appear. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of New Testament Theology)
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15 pages, 478 KiB  
Article
Kyoto’s Gion Festival in Late Classical and Medieval Times: Actors, Legends, and Meanings
by Mark Teeuwen
Religions 2022, 13(6), 545; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060545 - 14 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2406
Abstract
Kyoto’s Gion festival has arguably the best-documented history of all festivals (sairei) in Japan, and studies of its development have heavily influenced our understanding of festivals in general. Yet we must expect that our knowledge of this history is partial at [...] Read more.
Kyoto’s Gion festival has arguably the best-documented history of all festivals (sairei) in Japan, and studies of its development have heavily influenced our understanding of festivals in general. Yet we must expect that our knowledge of this history is partial at most. Extant archives on its late classical and medieval history derive from a narrow group of festival actors, and are therefore intrinsically biased. This article looks at current reconstructions of the festival’s origin and development, addressing primarily the following questions: Which groups of actors are the historical record hiding from us? Is there a world of ritual action, beliefs, and concerns that we are missing entirely? Origin legends have been used throughout history to attribute meaning to the festival procedures. Today as in the past, these legends are always accompanied by narratives of continuity: at its core, it is implied, the festival remains unchanged. Such legends reflect the interests of actors and patrons of different ages, and changes in the festival’s context have required origin tales to be updated or even replaced. What do such narrative innovations reveal about the festival’s changing place in society at different historical junctures? Do such legends contain traces of the activities of actors who have since disappeared, taking their archives with them? Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interlacing Networks: Aspects of Medieval Japanese Religion)
13 pages, 260 KiB  
Article
Neoliberal Hegemonic Masculinity and McMindfulness: The Need for Buddhist Values and Principles in Mindful Masculinity Programs
by David Forbes
Religions 2022, 13(6), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060544 - 14 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2610
Abstract
This paper explores how certain Buddhist-inspired principles such as impermanence of self and compassion for all (metta) and the practice of mindfulness can contribute to challenging ways in which young men adopt troublesome aspects of systemic patriarchy. It (1) briefly examines [...] Read more.
This paper explores how certain Buddhist-inspired principles such as impermanence of self and compassion for all (metta) and the practice of mindfulness can contribute to challenging ways in which young men adopt troublesome aspects of systemic patriarchy. It (1) briefly examines the problem of systemic patriarchy in its most dominant forms, neoliberal hegemonic masculinity and right-wing racist authoritarian masculinity; (2) critically discusses examples of mindfulness education and counseling programs for young men that have been severed from their Buddhist origins (McMindfulness) that attempt to challenge young men around patriarchal beliefs and thoughts but end up reproducing neoliberal hegemonic masculinity; (3) briefly considers the problem of McMindfulness and its relation to Buddhism and neoliberal hegemonic and mindful masculinity; and (4) offers Buddhist perspectives as part of a counter-view that may serve within programs as an alternative to current forms of patriarchy while including and renewing the aforementioned Buddhist principles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Practice for the Crises That Face Us)
14 pages, 898 KiB  
Article
The Astronomical Innovations of Monk Yixing 一行 (673–727)
by Jeffrey Kotyk
Religions 2022, 13(6), 543; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060543 - 13 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2953
Abstract
The Chinese monk Yixing 一行 (673–727) is unique in being an early architect of the Mantrayāna tradition (Esoteric Buddhism) in East Asia in addition to featuring as a significant individual within the history of astronomy and calendrical science in China. His legacy in [...] Read more.
The Chinese monk Yixing 一行 (673–727) is unique in being an early architect of the Mantrayāna tradition (Esoteric Buddhism) in East Asia in addition to featuring as a significant individual within the history of astronomy and calendrical science in China. His legacy in the Buddhist world is well known, but the enduring appreciation of his scientific work in later centuries is less understood. The present paper will document the achievements of Yixing’s work in astronomy while also discussing the perception and appreciation of his work in subsequent centuries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Life History of Chinese Buddhist Monks)
17 pages, 2245 KiB  
Article
Shia Clerics, Holy Sites, and the Online Visual Culture of the Revolutionary Youth in Iran
by Alireza Taherifard
Religions 2022, 13(6), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060542 - 13 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2833
Abstract
Since the supreme leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) called on the clergy to embark on an online jihad to rescue youngsters trapped in the “killing field” of the internet, a vast number of clerics and state-sponsored religious organizations and actors [...] Read more.
Since the supreme leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) called on the clergy to embark on an online jihad to rescue youngsters trapped in the “killing field” of the internet, a vast number of clerics and state-sponsored religious organizations and actors have expanded their online activities. The growing body of Islamic online contents produced by the IRI’s promoters and the proliferation of social media-related practices in religious places and events have shaped the online visual culture of the Iranian revolutionary youths. To explore this under-researched area, this study concentrates on three sets of visual tropes: (1) selfies with martyrs, (2) selfies taken by revolutionary clerics in disaster-stricken areas, and (3) shared images of the holy shrine of Imam Reza on Instagram. In addition to online documents (including posters, photographs, and reports), the data includes selectively chosen Instagram postings retrieved by searching pertinent accounts, hashtags, and locations on the platform. The investigation inquires the ways in which online image-making has been incorporated in the construction of holy sites and the culture of sacrifice and martyrdom propagated by the IRI as ideal youth aspirations. The findings demonstrate the extensive appropriation of social media and intensive integration of online image-making in this field. The study contributes to understanding of the online spaces and practices aimed at extending the influence over the online youth culture in Iran in line with the IRI’s cultural plans and policies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Youth and Religion)
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10 pages, 466 KiB  
Article
Heresy and Liminality in Shingon Buddhism: Deciphering a 15th Century Treatise on Right and Wrong
by Gaétan Rappo
Religions 2022, 13(6), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060541 - 13 Jun 2022
Viewed by 2254
Abstract
Traditional historiography of Japanese Buddhism presents the Muromachi period as an era of triumph for Zen, and of decline for the previous near-hegemony of Esoteric Buddhism. However, for the Shingon school, the period from the late Middle Ages to early Edo period was [...] Read more.
Traditional historiography of Japanese Buddhism presents the Muromachi period as an era of triumph for Zen, and of decline for the previous near-hegemony of Esoteric Buddhism. However, for the Shingon school, the period from the late Middle Ages to early Edo period was rather a phase of expansion, especially in the more remote locales of Eastern Japan. Focusing on a text authored during the fifteenth century, this article will analyze how this idea of the outskirts or periphery was integrated with the process of creation of orthodoxy in local Shingon temples. In doing so, it will shed new light not only on the evolution, but also on the epistemological role of discourse relating to heresy, and on their role in the legitimation of monastic lineages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interlacing Networks: Aspects of Medieval Japanese Religion)
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