Next Article in Journal
Strategies to Build Hybrid Protein–DNA Nanostructures
Next Article in Special Issue
Antibacterial Biodegradable Films Based on Alginate with Silver Nanoparticles and Lemongrass Essential Oil–Innovative Packaging for Cheese
Previous Article in Journal
Dimethylglyoxime Clathrate as Ligand Derived Nitrogen-Doped Carbon-Supported Nano-Metal Particles as Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Nanomaterials
Volume 11
Issue 5
10.3390/nano11051331
nanomaterials-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Recent Advances in the Development of Smart and Active Biodegradable Packaging Materials

by
Mahmood Alizadeh Sani
1,
Maryam Azizi-Lalabadi
2,
Milad Tavassoli
3,
Keyhan Mohammadi
4 and
David Julian McClements
5,*
1
Food Safety and Hygiene Division, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1417614411, Iran
2
Research Center for Environmental Determinants of Health (RCEDH), Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6719851552, Iran
3
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166614711, Iran
4
Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1417614411, Iran
5
Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Nanomaterials 2021, 11(5), 1331; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11051331
Submission received: 21 April 2021 / Revised: 10 May 2021 / Accepted: 12 May 2021 / Published: 18 May 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Bionanocomposites)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Interest in the development of smart and active biodegradable packaging materials is increasing as food manufacturers try to improve the sustainability and environmental impact of their products, while still maintaining their quality and safety. Active packaging materials contain components that enhance their functionality, such as antimicrobials, antioxidants, light blockers, or oxygen barriers. Smart packaging materials contain sensing components that provide an indication of changes in food attributes, such as alterations in their quality, maturity, or safety. For instance, a smart sensor may give a measurable color change in response to a deterioration in food quality. This article reviews recent advances in the development of active and smart biodegradable packaging materials in the food industry. Moreover, studies on the application of these packaging materials to monitor the freshness and safety of food products are reviewed, including dairy, meat, fish, fruit and vegetable products. Finally, the potential challenges associated with the application of these eco-friendly packaging materials in the food industry are discussed, as well as potential future directions.

1. Introduction

Foods are packaged for a number of reasons, including to protect them from their environments, improve their quality and safety, increase their shelf life, and facilitate their handling, storage, and transport [1,2]. Traditionally, the packaging materials used for this purpose have been fabricated from synthetic polymers, such as polyamide, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, ethylene vinyl alcohol, polystyrene, and polyvinylchloride. These synthetic polymers are particularly suitable for producing packaging materials because of their beneficial physicochemical and functional attributes, such as mechanical robustness, pliability, optical traits, and barrier properties [1]. As a result, their industrial production has continued to rise over the past few decades, with around 320 million tons currently being produced each year [1,3]. However, the widespread use of synthetic plastics for this purpose has undesirable environmental consequences, since this type of packaging material can persist in the environment for extended periods and can form microplastics or nanoplastics when it degrades that contaminate water, soil and food [1,3].
For these reasons, there has been growing interest in using natural polymers, such as polysaccharides and proteins, often in combination with other natural components (such as lipids, phospholipids, surfactants, or natural nanoparticles), to fabricate biodegradable packaging materials [4,5,6]. Indeed, the increasing research activity in this area can be seen from the number of scientific articles published on packaging materials made from biopolymers versus those made from plastics (Figure 1). The utilization of biopolymers for this purpose is often advantageous because they are more biodegradable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly than synthetic polymers [3,7,8]. In particular, biopolymer-based films can easily be degraded by microorganisms and some inorganic compounds in the environment [9,10,11]. A wide variety of biopolymers have been explored for this purpose, either alone or in combination, including cellulose, chitin, chitosan, pectin, agar, alginate, carrageenan, gelatin, zein, and whey protein [8,12,13]. One of the major challenges associated with the development of biodegradable packaging materials from biopolymers is to create films that have mechanical, optical, and barrier properties that match those normally provided by synthetic polymers [14,15]. For instance, biodegradable films may breakdown when they come into contact with moist foods or environments for extended periods, thereby losing their desirable functional attributes [9,10,11]. Researchers are therefore examining new biopolymers and their combinations in an attempt to overcome these problems. Biopolymer-based packaging materials with good functional attributes can often be prepared in the laboratory, but it is usually difficult to achieve this economically on a large-scale, which currently limits their commercial application.
Many researchers are attempting to extend the functional performance of biopolymer-based packaging materials by creating active and/or smart films. Active packaging materials contain additives, such as antioxidants or antimicrobials, that can improve the quality, shelf-life or safety of foods by inhibiting chemical reactions or microbial growth [15]. Smart packaging materials are designed to respond to a specific trigger, such as a change in pH, temperature, moisture content, gas levels, light exposure, chemical composition, or enzyme activity [16,17]. For instance, they may contain a natural pigment that undergoes a color change in response to one of these triggers, which can then be used to report alterations in the ripeness, quality, or safety of a food [11]. Alternatively, the packaging material may respond to a trigger by releasing active ingredients, such as antioxidants or antimicrobials, that then diffuse into the food and protect it.
An important advantage of using biopolymers to create packaging materials is that waste streams from the food industry can be converted into value-added functional ingredients, thereby reducing waste, increasing sustainability, and improving economic viability [18]. Many of the by-products generated by the food industry are currently used either as animal feed or simply discarded, leading to waste and pollution [19,20]. Examples of these by-products include tomato pulp, vegetable peels, fruit peels, pruning waste, and slaughterhouse waste [10]. Many of these by-products are rich sources of polysaccharides, proteins, and/or lipids, as well as other functional ingredients such as antimicrobials, antioxidants, and pigments, and are therefore a suitable source of value added ingredients [9,11]. Some of the potential advantages of biopolymer-based packaging materials over plastic ones are highlighted in Figure 2.
In this article, we review recent developments in the design and formulation of smart and active biopolymer-based food packaging materials, including discussions of the proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids that can be used for this purpose, the fabrication methods available, as well as the potential application of these materials in the food industry.

2. Overview of Biodegradable Packaging Materials

Food packaging is used to protect food products from physical, chemical, or biological stresses in their environment, thereby improving their quality and extending their shelf life. A variety of packaging materials have traditionally been used for this purpose, including plastic, glass, metal, paper, wood, and textiles [1,2]. As mentioned earlier, some of the most widely used of these packaging materials, particularly plastics, cause considerable environmental damage during their manufacture and after their disposal. For this reason, there has been great interest in developing biodegradable forms of packaging materials that are more sustainable to produce, that rapidly decompose after disposal, and that do not cause as much environmental pollution [21]. These packaging materials can be constructed from biodegradable film-forming materials such as proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids. Moreover, their functional performance can be enhanced by incorporating organic or inorganic nanoparticles or nanofibers [22,23]. For instance, nano-forms of clay, iron oxide (Fe2O3), titanium dioxide (TiO2), silver (Ag) and zinc oxide (ZnO) can be used (inorganic nanoparticles), as well as nano-forms of chitin and cellulose and their derivatives (organic nanoparticles) [24,25,26,27,28]. The resulting nanocomposites often have enhanced technofunctional characteristics such as improved optical, mechanical and barrier properties, as well as some novel functional attributes, such as antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, that can prolong the shelf life of packaged foods [29,30,31]. Moreover, it is possible to incorporate sensing materials into biodegradable films to provide information about the quality, freshness, or safety of packaged foods. Table 1 and Figure 3 show the main characteristics of active and smart biodegradable packaging materials.
In the remainder of this section we highlight a number of the most commonly used biodegradable materials that can be used to assemble packaging materials suitable for use in the food and other industries.

2.1. Biodegradable Materials

Biodegradable materials for constructing packaging materials can be obtained from plant, animal, or microbial sources. It is important that these materials can be produced economically and sustainably, and that they quickly degrade when disposed of in the environment, usually as the result of natural chemical or biochemical processes [51]. In this section, we provide a few examples of edible materials that can be used to fabricate biodegradable packaging materials.

2.1.1. Proteins

Dairy Proteins

Dairy proteins, such as casein and whey protein, have been shown to be capable of forming biodegradable packaging materials. Caseins, which come in various types (including αS1, αS2, β, and κ caseins), make up around 80% of the proteins in milk [25,41]. These proteins are fairly flexible proteins that tend to aggregate around their isoelectric point (pH 4.6), which is important for many of their functional attributes. In the food industry, these proteins are usually available in the form of powdered calcium or sodium caseinate ingredients, which are formed by adding Ca(OH)2 or NaOH to casein solutions, respectively [52]. Edible films have been formed from caseinate that have favorable mechanical and optical characteristics [53]. Whey proteins, which also come in various types (including β-lactoglobulin, α-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin, and immunoglobins), make up around 20% of the proteins in milk [52]. They are globular proteins that have also been shown to be effective at forming films due to their good gelling properties. For instance, films made from whey protein isolate (WPI) have been reported to have good mechanical and oxygen barrier properties under low and intermediate relative humidity (RH) conditions [54]. However, these films exhibited poor water vapor barrier properties, which limits their application as packaging materials for many foods. The formation of films with appropriate functional attributes requires careful control of the denaturation, association, and crosslinking of the whey proteins [55,56]. Typically, films made from milk proteins tend to be relatively soft, smooth, tasteless, and clear, which is desirable for many applications. Moreover, they can also be made to have antimicrobial and antioxidant activity by encapsulating functional additives within them [57]. One of the main challenges of this kind of packaging material is their poor resistance to moisture transport and their fragility.

Meat Proteins

Gelatin is one of the most commonly used meat proteins for forming biodegradable films. It is isolated from waste products of the meat industry, such as the collagen-rich bones, skin, tendons, and hooves of animals [58]. Typically, collagen is converted to gelatin by heating in a strong acid or alkaline solution at high temperatures (e.g., 80 °C) [59]. The gelatin obtained from this process is purified and then converted into a powdered form that is used as a functional ingredient in the food and other industries. Gelatin exists as a random coil molecule at high temperatures but undergoes a coil-to-helix transition when it is cooled below a critical transition temperature. The helices formed may then act as crosslinking points between different gelatin molecules due to hydrogen bonding. At sufficiently high concentrations, the gelatin molecules form a 3D network that leads to solid-like properties. Gelatin gels are typically formed by heating a gelatin solution above the coil-to-helix transition temperature (typically around 20–30 °C for terrestrial animals and lower for fish), and then cooling and drying the solution, which increases the protein concentration and promotes crosslink formation [60,61]. Gelatin films can be formed with thicknesses and mechanical properties suitable for use as food packaging materials, but they often have poor barrier properties, especially against water vapor transport [62,63], which limits their practical applications.

Plant Proteins

Many different kinds of plant protein are available to produce biodegradable films, including those isolated from zein, gluten, soybeans, nuts, peas, and sunflower [64]. Zein is a hydrophobic corn protein that is insoluble in water but soluble in concentrated alcohol solutions, which is important for the formation of edible films [65]. Previously, zein has been used as a constituent of packaging materials for various foods [66,67]. The proteins isolated from soybeans have also been shown to be suitable for forming edible films [68], which is often carried out using film casting or baking methods [69]. Smooth and stretchable edible films can be formed from soy proteins that have good mechanical properties, but again their water barrier properties tend to be poor [70]. The water barrier properties of soy films can be improved by incorporating hydrophobic additives into them, such as stearic acid, but this also modulates their optical and mechanical properties [71]. Other additives, such as glycerol, gellan gum or κ-carrageenan, have also been shown to improve the functional performance of soy films [72].

2.1.2. Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose, chitin, chitosan, and hydrocolloid gums, have also been used as components to construct biodegradable films [4,6]. These polysaccharides differ in their molecular characteristics, which alters the physicochemical and functional attributes of the packaging materials constructed from them

Starch

Starch is widely used because of its relative cheapness, abundance, biodegradability, and renewability [73]. In nature, starch molecules are packed into small granules (around 1 to 20 μm) that consist of amylose and amylopectin molecules organized into concentric amorphous and crystalline rings [74]. Edible films made entirely from starch have a high water vapor permeability and weak mechanical properties, which limits their usage [75]. For this reason, researchers have examined the impact of incorporating other additives to improve their functional performance. For instance, starch has been combined with polyvinyl alcohol to produce a film with good barrier properties against water, thereby extending its potential for commercial applications as a food packaging material [76].

Cellulose

Cellulose is the most abundant source of functional polysaccharides in nature, which is usually obtained from wood or cotton using acid hydrolysis processes [77]. Cellulose and its derivatives, such as methylcellulose (MC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), have been widely explored for their potential in forming biodegradable films [78,79]. For instance, films with good mechanical and water solubility characteristics have been produced using CMC [80]. However, other studies have reported that cellulose-based films act as poor water vapor barriers, which limits their application in foods [81].

Chitin and Chitosan

Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide found in nature, while chitosan is produced from chitin using controlled de-acetylation reactions [51]. Chitin and chitosan have both been shown to be capable of forming biodegradable films that can be used to increase the shelf life of food products [82]. Typically, the films formed by chitin are mechanically weaker and have worse barrier properties than those formed by chitosan. As with other biopolymers, the functional performance of chitin and chitosan films can be improved by combining them with proteins or other polysaccharides, or by incorporating other functional additives [28,42]. The fact that both chitin and chitosan naturally exhibit antimicrobial activity is useful for the development of active biodegradable films that can increase the shelf life of foods [42,51].

Hydrocolloid Gums

A variety of edible hydrocolloid gums can be used to form biodegradable packaging materials. Pectin is an anionic polysaccharide consisting of a linear anionic chain with neutral side chains attached to certain regions [10,13]. Commercial pectin ingredients are typically isolated from apple, citrus fruit, or sugar beet. Pectin is widely used in the food industry as a stabilizer, thickening agent, gelling agent, and film former [83]. Studies have shown that pectin can form films that are relatively strong and have good resistance to oxygen diffusion, but are fragile and have poor resistance to water diffusion [84]. Pectin films have been shown to be able to protect foods with relatively low water activities [85]. They have also been reported to increase the shelf life of a wide range of fruits and vegetables, including apple, apricot, avocado, berries, guava, chestnuts, melon, peach, walnuts, papaya, tomato, and carrot [86]. Pectin is often preferred for these applications because it can be naturally derived from fruits and vegetables. Nevertheless, numerous other kinds of hydrocolloid gums can also be utilized to create biodegradable films because of their ability to form crosslinks with each other, including agar, alginate, carrageenan and gum arabic [87,88].

2.1.3. Lipids

A number of lipids can be used to assemble biodegradable films, either in isolation or in combination with other components, including monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, free fatty acids, and waxes [89,90,91]. Lipid-based films have advantages for creating a glossy surface appearance, retaining moisture in foods, and reducing water permeability [92,93]. For instance, films produced from palm fruit oil have been reported to be transparent and have good water barrier properties [94]. Sunflower oil-based films have been used to coat hamburgers, which were shown to improve their quality by controlling oxygen and water vapor permeability [95]. Essential oils (EOs) isolated from the peels of citrus fruit (such as lemon, mandarin, and orange) have been incorporated as functional ingredients into methylcellulose and chitosan films to enhance their functionality [96]. Antimicrobial essential oils from cinnamon, allspice, and clove bud have also been incorporated into edible films to protect apples during storage [97]. In many cases, lipids are converted into an oil-in-water emulsion by homogenizing them with an aqueous solution containing an emulsifier prior to incorporating them into biopolymer-based films. The composition, size, concentration, and interfacial properties of the lipid droplets used impacts the mechanical, optical, barrier and other functional attributes of the films formed, and should therefore be optimized for each application [94].

3. Fabrication of Packaging Materials

In this section, a brief overview of the various methods commonly used to produce biodegradable packaging materials is given, including casting, electrospinning, extrusion, and compression methods [51,98,99]. The casting method is the most widely used in research laboratories for the small-scale production of biodegradable packaging materials from food-grade ingredients [51]. Typically, the film-forming biopolymers are dissolved within a solution and then any functional additives are incorporated (such as plasticizers, nanoparticles, nanofibers, phytochemicals, or emulsified lipids). These mixtures are then cast in petri dishes and placed in a vacuum oven to remove the water or other solvents (e.g., 50 °C for 48 h). The resulting films are then often stored in desiccators at a fixed relative humidity before they are characterized and utilized [100]. Although this method is widely used in scientific research, it is typically unsuitable for the large-scale production of packaging materials. However, it is useful for identifying potential formulations that could be produced using other methods once a suitable scale-up procedure has been established.
Electrospinning processes are also commonly used in research laboratories but may also be used on an industrial scale [101]. In this case, a solution containing the film-forming biopolymers and additives is placed into a syringe. A high voltage is applied between the syringe tip and a collection plate. The mixture is pulled out from the syringe tip and forms a thin stream, which is dried as it passes through the intervening air. As a result, fibers are deposited onto the collection plate, which can then be further dried by holding them at an elevated temperature [102]. This method tends to produce highly porous fiber films containing interconnected pores with a high specific area [103,104]. The composition and structure of these films can be controlled by changing the ingredients and operating conditions used [104]. The delicate fibrous mats produced by electrospinning may be suitable for some packaging applications but are less suitable for forming thin films [99,104].
Extrusion methods can be used to make biodegradable packaging materials on a small or large scale. They involve applying high temperatures, pressures, and shear forces to mixtures of biopolymers and other additives to blend and plasticize them. The resulting material is then forced through a narrow die with the required shape. The nature of the films produced depends on many factors, including the biopolymers, additives, and processing conditions used, including the operating temperatures, pressures, and shearing rates [105]. Glycerol is often used as a food-grade plasticizer because of its good thermal stability. Extrusion is particularly suitable for the large scale production of packaging materials because it can be carried out as a continuous process at large scales [106].
Biodegradable films can also be produced at small and large scales using compression molding methods [51,98]. In this process, the film-forming biopolymers and other additives are mixed together and then placed into a suitable mold. The film may then be formed by compression of these mixtures to promote curing, that is, crosslinking of the biopolymers. In cold compression, the curing procedure takes place at room temperature, while in hot compression it takes place by applying heat to the mold during compression [107].
The selection of an appropriate fabrication method depends on the nature of the ingredients used, the desired attributes of the final packaging materials, and the amount of material that needs to be produced. The casting method can be used with most biopolymers albeit at a small scale, but the other three methods can only be used for certain types of biopolymers. For example, the electrospinning method can only be used for electrically charged biopolymers that can be pulled through a nozzle. The extrusion method is unsuitable for biopolymers that chemically degrade at high temperatures, pressures, or shear rates. The compression methods are only suitable for biopolymers that set when they are compressed or compressed/heated [51,98,99].

4. Active Packaging Materials

Active food packaging materials are designed to have functional attributes that go beyond the normal optical, mechanical, and barrier properties of conventional packaging materials. For instance, they may be designed to inhibit microbial growth, to retard undesirable chemical reactions, or to control enzyme activity, thereby extending the shelf life of foods [108,109]. Typically, this is achieved by incorporating antimicrobials and/or antioxidants agents into the packaging materials, with a particular emphasis on the utilization of natural botanically-derived functional ingredients for clean labeling purposes [7,25,110,111,112]. One of the potential advantages of active packaging materials is that the antioxidants and antimicrobials are located within the film, rather than within the food, which may reduce the amount of these additives required to protect the food during storage, as well as reducing the amount ingested [108,109,113,114].
The additives incorporated into active packaging materials may increase the shelf life of packaged foods by a range of different mechanisms depending on their characteristics. Some of the most common additives that exhibit antimicrobial or antioxidant properties that are used for this purpose include macronutrients (such as specific protein or carbohydrate molecules), inorganic nanoparticles (such as Ag, TiO2, ZnO, and clay), organic nanoparticles (such as lipid-, protein-, or carbohydrate-based nanoparticles), essential oils or other extracts from plants (such as thyme oil or tea extract), and phytochemicals (such as curcumin, quercetin, or anthocyanins). A number of these additives are discussed in more detail in the following sections.

4.1. Antioxidants

The reason for incorporating antioxidants into food packaging materials is to inhibit oxidation reactions in foods, particularly degradative reactions that involve lipids or proteins [111,115]. Typically, antioxidants inhibit oxidation by neutralizing singlet oxygen, reducing hydrogen peroxide, quenching free radicals, or chelating transition metal ions [108,115,116,117]. Botanical extracts from a wide range of plants including saffron, garlic, cabbage, potatoes, tomatoes, and strawberries have been used as natural antioxidant additives in active packaging materials [108,118,119,120]. These extracts contain various classes of molecules that can exhibit antioxidant activity [113,121]. For instance, epigallocatechin and epigallocatechin gallate were shown to have the highest antioxidant activity in green tea extracts [122]. Another study examined the antioxidant activity of various kinds of plant extracts in gelatin films, including ginger, grape seed, green tea, and ginkgo leaf extracts using a DPPH radical scavenging assay [123]. This study showed that ginkgo leaf extracts had the most potent antioxidant activity.
Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments that are naturally abundant in many plants and their by-products, including flowers, cereals, vegetables, and fruits [108]. These natural phenolic compounds also have excellent antioxidant and antimicrobial properties [14,16]. Anthocyanins have been shown to play promising antioxidant roles in active packaging materials as a reducing agent and an oxygen suppressor [14,108]. The potency of these antioxidants depends on various factors, including the type of anthocyanin used, the composition of the biopolymer matrix, and the method of film preparation [14,115].
Essential oils are another group of botanical compounds that have strong antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, which consist of a complex mixture of phenolic, terpene, and terpenoid compounds [113,124]. Essential oils have been classified as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) and so can be used in active food packaging materials as functional ingredients [125,126]. Essential oils such as carvacrol, cinnamon, thyme, rosemary, citrus, and tea oils can be extracted from botanical sources by distillation [109,127]. Incorporation of these essential oils into packaging materials can enhance their physicochemical and mechanical properties, as well as their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties [26,125]. Carvacrol is the main antimicrobial component found in oregano oil, which has been shown to increase the permeability of microbial cell walls, thereby resulting in their death [108]. A synergistic antimicrobial effect against strawberry gray mold has been reported when carvacrol was used in combination with thymol in clay/polymer nanocomposite films [128]. Essential oils have also been used in combination with other kinds of inorganic nanoparticle additives in biopolymer packaging materials, such as those comprised of titanium oxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and silver (Ag), to improve their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties [109,113,125]. A combination of rosemary oil and TiO2 nanoparticles incorporated into a biopolymer packaging material has been reported to significantly reduce lipid oxidation and microbial growth [113]. Incorporating inorganic nanoparticles into packaging materials has been shown to eliminate the characteristic odors associated with essential oils. For instance, it was reported that the incorporation of carvacrol oil into packaging materials led to an unacceptable odor [129], which could be reduced by also incorporating ZnO NPs [130,131].

4.2. Antimicrobials

The incorporation of antimicrobial substances into active packaging materials is advantageous because it can be used to inhibit the growth of spoilage or pathogenic microbes [12,108]. Natural antimicrobial substances, such as essential oils (cloves, oregano, thyme, rosemary oils) and plant extracts (barberry, saffron, potatoes, strawberries, garlic, tomatoes, lettuce, and cabbage extracts) can be included into biodegradable packaging materials [42,79,108,119,132,133]. These antimicrobial substances may remain in the packaging materials or they may diffuse into the foods during storage [108,114]. Ideally, the rate at which the antimicrobials move into the foods can be controlled so as to prolong their activity. Antimicrobial substances can be immobilized on the surfaces of package materials or they can be incorporated throughout them [108,109]. Some natural antimicrobial substances are sensitive to heat, so their antimicrobial activity may be lost during thermal processing. In this case, non-thermal fabrication methods such as electrospinning, solvent evaporation, or casting methods should be used to prepare this type of packaging material [131]. Anthocyanins have been shown to have good antimicrobial properties in active packaging materials, which has been attributed to their ability to penetrate the cell membranes, inhibit extracellular enzymes, and breakdown the cytoplasmic membranes of microorganisms [110].
Various other kinds of natural antimicrobial agents have been investigated for their potential incorporation into active packaging materials [134]. For instance, incorporating eugenol into gelatin films increased their antibacterial activity, with a reduction of microbial growth, as expressed as colony forming units (CFU), of around 2.5 log units for S. aureus and 3 log units for E. coli compared to the control group [135]. In another study, it was shown that incorporation of tomato extract and itaconic acid into films comprised of chitosan and poly(vinyl alcohol) reduced improved their antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa and S. aureus [136]. Active packaging materials have also been developed to reduce contamination by other kinds of microbes, including viruses and fungi [137]. For example, the incorporation of a tea extract into chitosan-based films was shown to increase their antiviral activity against murine norovirus (MNV-1) [138]. In another study, incorporation of silver into polylactic acid films was shown to increase their activity against feline virus (FCV), another surrogate for human norovirus, with no infectious FCV being detected in lettuce samples incubated at 4 °C for 6 days [139]. Packaging materials with antifungal activity have also been developed. For instance, incorporating cinnamaldehyde into gliadin-based films reduced food spoilage by inhibiting the growth of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium expansum on bread and shredded cheese [140].

4.3. Gas Controllers

Oxygen molecules can permeate through food packaging materials and accelerate oxidation and discoloration reactions in packaged foods [141]. Consequently, it is important to have methods to control oxygen levels in foods. Oxygen-scavenging agents, such as iron acids, sulfites, catechols, ascorbic acid, unsaturated hydrocarbons, palladium, tocopherols, and enzymes (glucose oxidase), can be used as oxygen depleting agents [141]. Other methods of inhibiting the adverse effects of oxygen include the use of botanical substances such as flavonoids, phenolics, salicylic acid, and gallic acid [124,142]. These compounds can sometimes be obtained from waste streams of food processing operations, which improves the economics and sustainability of the food supply [143]. To inhibit oxygen, a substance should have a number of desirable structural features, including the presence of carbon-carbon and carbon-oxygen double bonds, and the presence of hydroxyl groups [108,141,143].
Ethylene gas (C2H4) is naturally produced by fruits and vegetables during respiration [144], which impacts their ripening, color, texture, and quality [108]. It is therefore important to be able to control the ethylene gas content in packaged produce during storage. In general, ethylene levels can be controlled by incorporating substances that absorb, oxidize, or decompose the gasses produced by fruits and vegetables [145]. Compounds that can remove and adsorb ethylene gas include potassium permanganate (KMnO4), clay, palladium, activated carbon, and titanium dioxide [144]. These kinds of additives can be used individually or in combination to obtain synergistic effects. For instance, nanocomposite films have been prepared from chitosan, TiO2 nanoparticles, and black plum peel extract, which were shown to have good antioxidant, antimicrobial, and ethylene scavenging properties [146].
In general, the optimization of an active packaging material for a particular application depends on several factors, including the water activity, composition, and pH of the food product, as well as the temperature and relative humidity of the environment during storage [147]. In addition, the packaging materials must be formulated so that they have desirable physicochemical and functional properties, such as optical, mechanical, barrier, sensory, and other attributes. The results of some recent studies on the development of active packaging materials are summarized in Table 2, while the growing number of articles published in this area is highlighted in Figure 1.

5. Smart Packaging Materials

Smart packaging materials are designed to respond in a particular manner when there is some change in the system (such as a change in quality, safety, or maturity of a packaged food), or to provide an indication of these changes [16,160]. As a result, these smart packaging materials can play an important role in improving food quality and safety management [16,161]. Examples of the several smart packaging materials that have been reported in the literature are highlighted in Table 3. In this section, some of the most common sensors that have been developed for application in smart packaging materials suitable for food applications are described.

5.1. pH Indicators

This kind of indicator provides a measurable change when there is a significant alteration in the pH of a packaged food. These pH changes may be caused by enzymatic activity, chemical reactions, or microbial growth in foods, and so pH sensors can provide an indication of alterations in food quality or safety [16,28]. Due to increasing demand from consumers for clean-label products, the use of natural pigments is usually preferred over synthetic dyes [178,179]. Several kinds of natural pigments undergo specific color changes in response to an alteration in the pH of the surrounding medium. This type of colorimetric pH-sensor, which is also referred to as a halochromic sensor, is typically based on an exchange of protons (H+) between the pigments and their environment [180]. Some colorimetric indicators can also give a color change in response to the presence of specific volatile compounds, which can also provide an indication of alterations in food quality [17,181,182,183].
pH-sensitive indicators have been developed using anthocyanins derived from various botanical sources, including saffron petal [42], black rice bran [184], hibiscus [185], purple corn [186], black soybean seed coat [44], purple onion peel [187], roselle [163,188], red barberry [28,79], blueberry [20,43], purple sweet potato [189,190], red cabbage [132,191], as well as from carotenoids [192,193], betalains [194,195] and chlorophylls [196]. The response of these natural pigments to pH changes depends on their molecular structure, as well as on environmental conditions, such as temperature, oxygen levels, and light exposure [197]. Anthocyanins are currently the most widely used natural pigments in smart packaging applications because they exhibit characteristic color changes over a broad range of pH values [16], changing from red (strongly acidic) to purple (mildly acidic) to violet (neutral) to blue (mildly alkaline) to green (moderately alkaline) to yellow (strongly alkaline) with an increase in pH (Figure 4). Under acidic conditions, the predominantly red color is caused by the flavylium cation (oxonium form). As the pH is increased, a number of different anthocyanin species with different absorption spectra are present in equilibrium with each other. In mildly acidic and neutral conditions, the carbinol pseudo-base and quinoidal base (hemiketal form) dominate, respectively. Under mildly alkaline conditions, the anionic quinoidal base species appears. Under strongly alkaline conditions, anthocyanins are chemically unstable and degrade into a chalcone species that has a green/yellow color [197,198]. Consequently, anthocyanins can be used as sensors over a wide pH range because they have different characteristic colors under acidic, neutral, and alkaline conditions. These anthocyanins can therefore be incorporated into biopolymer-based smart packaging materials as pH sensors to monitor changes in the quality or spoilage of foods. This kind of smart packaging material has been shown to be useful for detecting quality changes in a number of food applications including, pork [162,164,199], shrimp [184], chicken [166,169], milk [200,201], pork, shrimp, fish [202,203,204], and Atlantic mackerel [205].
Other natural pigments are also available that undergo characteristic color changes when the pH is altered and so can also be used as sensors of food quality [16]. For example, carotenoids (lycopene/bixin/β-carotene) have been incorporated into polylactic acid films to monitor and control the oxidation of sunflower oil [193]. The carotenoids act as natural antioxidants that slow down oxidation but they also undergo color changes when they are oxidized, thereby providing an indication of oil quality. Betacyanin derived from dragon fruit peel has been incorporated into glucomannan/polyvinyl alcohol films as an indicator of the freshness of packaged fish [172]. The pigments changed color from purple under acidic conditions to yellow under alkaline conditions, which provided an indication of changes in fish quality. Chlorophyll has been incorporated into wheat gluten/polypyrrole films as a color indicator of pH changes related to quality [196].

5.2. Gas Indicators

Fresh fruits and vegetables produce gasses (such as ethylene) as a result of natural respiration processes, which provides a measure of their freshness and quality. Moreover, gasses (such as oxygen) may move into or out of food packages and alter the susceptibility of the foods to chemical degradation (such as oxidation). Finally, certain kinds of gasses are generated due to the action of microbes that contaminate foods, thereby providing an indication of their quality and safety. For this reason, it is important to have smart biodegradable films that can sense and indicate the presence of specific gasses [113,206].
Smart packaging materials have been developed that contain sensors that are sensitive to different kinds of gases (e.g., CO2, O2, H2S, and ethylene) and other volatile compounds (e.g., amines, ketones, and aldehydes) that provide an indication of food quality [177,200,204,207,208]. These gas sensors can be developed based on the tendency for some natural pigments to chemically degrade when exposed to certain kinds of gasses. For instance, anthocyanins degrade in the presence of ammonia (NH3) vapor, with the color changing from purple/violet to green/yellow as the gas concentration increases [132]. Similarly, betalains chemically degrade in the presence of oxygen, which leads to a measurable color change [209]. Moreover, many carotenoids exhibit color fading when exposed to oxygen due to oxidation reactions, and so they can be employed as oxygen sensors [210]. In principle, different natural pigments can be used to detect different kinds of gasses. Colorimetric gas indicators can be incorporated into packaging materials in a variety of ways, including adhesive labels, printed layers, or within the interior of the film [113]. These smart packaging materials can provide information much more cheaply and quickly than analytical instruments such as spectrophotometry, chromatography, mass spectrometry, or nuclear magnetic resonance methods [206]. Numerous studies have demonstrated the potential of smart packaging materials containing gas sensors to detect different kinds of gasses including oxygen [211], carbon dioxide [207,208,212], hydrogen sulfide [200,213], ethylene and volatile ammonia compounds [208,214]. As an example, a colorimetric gas-sensing indicator has been used to monitor changes in CO2 levels, which provides an indication of the freshness of green bell peppers [215]. The colorimetric films changed from green to orange when the fresh-cut bell peppers deteriorated. In another study, a smart colorimetric packaging material consisting of a starch/polyvinyl alcohol film loaded with roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) anthocyanins was shown to be suitable for monitoring changes in the freshness of silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) stored at 4 °C [174]. The colorimetric label changed from purple (acidic) → pink → violet → bluish → green/yellow (basic) over time due to the formation of volatile basic nitrogen amines. In another study, smart colorimetric packaging materials consisting of tara gum/polyvinyl alcohol films containing curcumin were used to monitor changes in the freshness of shrimp by detecting the generation of NH3 [177]. The color of the smart indicator film reversibly changed from yellow to brown as the NH3 concentration increased.

5.3. Time-Temperature Indicators

In general, time-temperature indicators (TTIs) are used to monitor and track the quality and safety of packaged foods during storage and distribution by determining whether they have been exposed to elevated temperatures for extended periods [113]. Smart packaging materials loaded with TTIs have been developed using natural food pigments as indicators [216,217,218,219]. The extent of the color change of these indicators depends on the temperature-time profile that the packaged food has been exposed to. These TTIs can therefore be used to obtain an indirect indication of whether a food product is likely to have deteriorated during storage [216,219,220]. TTIs have been widely used in the food packaging industry because they are relatively simple and inexpensive to design, as well as being easy to read by consumers [113]. TTIs are categorized into different groups depending on the underlying principles of the temperature-detection method: diffusion, polymerization, microbial growth, enzymatic reaction, thermochromic reaction, photochromic reaction, electronic, and surface plasmon resonance [221,222]. Sensors that depend on temperature can also be classified into different categories depending on their mode of operation: (i) critical temperature indicators (CTI), which report whether the food has been heated above or cooled below some specified temperature during its lifetime; (ii) critical temperature/time integrators (CTTI), which report whether the food has been heated above or cooled below some specified temperature for longer than a specified time; and (iii) temperature-time indicators (TTIs), which report the full temperature versus time profile of a food product throughout its history [113]. It is therefore important to select a temperature sensor that can provide the required response to a change in its thermal environment. Typically, a temperature sensor has an activation energy (Ea) that must be overcome before there is a change from one state to another, such as a color change [113]. Temperature sensors typically follow an Arrhenius temperature dependency and it has been estimated that their activation energy should be in the range of about 10 to 40 kcal/mol [223]. A well designed temperature sensor can provide information about the expected shelf life of a food product provided there is prior knowledge about the impact of storage conditions on shelf life [113,222].
A number of researchers have examined the suitability of natural pigments as temperature sensors. Various types of anthocyanins have been shown to exhibit discoloration when the temperature exceeds about 30 °C, including those isolated from vegetable extracts [224], blue flowers [225], pomegranate juice [226], and fruits purees [227]. As an example, smart packaging materials have been developed by integrating a temperature-sensitive anthocyanin into a chitosan/cellulose matrix, which irreversibly changed color from violet to yellow when the temperature was increased from 40 to 70 °C [228]. A number of other time-temperature colorimetric indicators have been developed based on other sensor mechanisms, including microbial-based (green to red), polymer-based (colorless to blue), diffusion-based (yellow to pink), and enzymatic-based (green to yellow to red) TTIs [206,229].

6. Applications of Biodegradable Packaging Material

Biodegradable packaging materials have been developed to increase the quality, shelf life, and safety of many kinds of foods [230,231]. In the following section, several applications of these packaging materials are presented for different food products. In addition, Table 4 summarizes a number of previous studies on the application of smart and active packaging materials in real foods.

6.1. Meat and Seafood

Biodegradable packaging materials have been used to extend the shelf life and improve the quality of meat products. These packaging materials are often used to control the environment around red meat so as to prevent undesirable color changes associated with myoglobin [113]. Consequently, they should have the ability to control the flow of gasses (such as oxygen) into and out of the package. In addition, active packaging materials may contain antimicrobial or antioxidant components to slow down microbial contamination or oxidation reactions, whereas smart packaging materials may contain sensors to provide insights into the quality or safety of the product (Figure 5) [245]. As an example, biodegradable packaging materials have been developed for meat applications that consist of a starch/whey protein film that includes a red cabbage extract as a natural antioxidant to inhibit lipid oxidation and improve meat quality [246]. Similarly, whey protein films have been developed that contain antimicrobial essential oils (rosemary) and titanium dioxide nanoparticles to improve the quality and shelf life of lamb meat during refrigerated storage by inhibiting microbial growth [236]. These films were reported to increase the shelf life of the meat products from around 6 to 13 days at 4 °C. In another study, smart packaging materials were prepared that consisted of κ-carrageenan films containing a botanical extract (Lycium ruthenicum Murr) as a color indicator, which changed color depending on the degree of spoilage of packaged shrimp [247]. A temperature-sensitive packaging material has been developed to give an indication of the quality status of fresh beef during storage [248]. Fish and other seafood products are also highly perishable foods as a result of microbial spoilage and oxidative reactions [249,250]. Active and smart packaging materials have also been shown to be effective at protecting these products, as well as at monitoring their quality during storage [28,79,112,236].

6.2. Dairy Products

Dairy products are nutrient-rich foods that are highly susceptible to microbial and chemical degradation during storage, thereby negatively impacting their quality attributes and safety [251]. A number of researchers have shown that active packaging materials can be used to increase the shelf life and quality of dairy products by including antimicrobial or antioxidant substances [251]. For instance, packaging materials consisting of sodium alginate films containing lemon extract were shown to inhibit the growth of spoilage microorganisms in mozzarella cheese, thereby extending its shelf life [252]. Similarly packaging materials consisting of starch films containing antimicrobial essential oils (carvacrol, linalool, and thymol) were shown to inhibit Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth on Cheddar cheese [253]. Smart packaging materials have also been created that consisted of starch/polyvinyl alcohol films containing anthocyanins and limonene, which changed from purple to red when the pH of pasteurized milk changed during storage [244]. In another study, smart packaging materials were developed that consisted of chitosan/PVA films containing anthocyanins from red cabbage, which provided an indication of the thermal history of milk products during storage based on color changes [118].

6.3. Fruits and Vegetables

Fresh and cut fruits and vegetables are highly perishable foods whose quality and safety may deteriorate during storage because of insect infestation, microbial contamination, or biochemical processes such as respiration [254,255]. Consequently, active and smart packaging materials are being developed to protect these foods during storage and transport, as well as to report on their quality status [256,257,258]. For instance, incorporating titanium dioxide nanoparticles into chitosan films was shown to increase the shelf life of tomatoes by delaying their ripening [239]. Incorporating anthocyanin-rich blackberry extracts into carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) films was also reported to increase the shelf life of cherry tomatoes [259]. Similarly, incorporating essential oils encapsulated in β-cyclodextrins into packaging materials was shown to increase the shelf life and quality of cherry tomatoes [260]. Antimicrobial packaging materials containing palmarosa essential oils or star anise were shown to increase the shelf life and reduce the growth of Penicillium expansum in apples [261].

7. Conclusions and Future Prospective

Smart and active packaging materials fabricated from natural materials have considerable potential in the food industry to improve the quality and safety of foods, as well as to extend their shelf-life and reduce waste. Natural pigments can be incorporated into these materials as indicators of changes in freshness, quality, or safety by undergoing color changes in response to specific alterations in pH, gas levels, or temperature. Natural antimicrobials or antioxidants can be used to extend the shelf-life of packaged foods by inhibiting microbial growth or undesirable chemical reactions. In some cases, a single additive can have multiple functions, acting as an antimicrobial, antioxidant, and sensor. The main advantage of smart packaging materials is that the freshness and safety of a product can be monitored in real-time without having to open the package. Moreover, insights into the previous history of the product can be ascertained, such as its exposure to light, oxygen, pH, or temperature changes.
Despite their considerable potential, there are still a number of hurdles that must be overcome before the more widespread commercial use of these active and smart packaging materials in the food industry. In particular, most of the packaging materials developed so far do not meet the rigorous optical, mechanical, barrier, or stability requirements needed for commercial applications. Moreover, there is a need to develop packaging materials that can be produced economically on a large scale. In addition, there is a need to ensure that any packaging materials that are developed remain intact and perform under the wide range of environmental conditions that foods experience during their production, storage, and utilization, including changes in temperature, light exposure, relative humidity, and mechanical stresses. Clearly, further research is still required to create the next-generation of biodegradable smart and active packaging materials that are robust and commercially viable, which may involve the identification and use of new natural materials, as well as the implementation of innovative structural design and processing approaches.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.J.M. and M.A.S.; methodology, M.A.L. and M.T.; software, K.M.; validation, D.J.M., and M.A.S.; formal analysis, K.M. and M.T.; investigation, D.J.M.; resources, D.J.M.; data curation, K.M.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.S. and K.M. and M.A.L. and M.T.; writing—review and editing, D.J.M.; visualization, D.J.M. and M.A.S.; supervision, D.J.M.; project administration, D.J.M.; funding acquisition, D.J.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by National Institute of Food and Agriculture, USDA, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, project number 831.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Groh, K.J.; Backhaus, T.; Carney-Almroth, B.; Geueke, B.; Inostroza, P.A.; Lennquist, A.; Leslie, H.A.; Maffini, M.; Slunge, D.; Trasande, L.; et al. Overview of known plastic packaging-associated chemicals and their hazards. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 651, 3253–3268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Ivonkovic, A.; Zeljko, K.; Talic, S.; Lasic, M. Biodegradable packaging in the food industry. J. Food Saf. Food Qual. 2017, 68, 26–38. [Google Scholar]
  3. Din, M.I.; Ghaffar, T.; Najeeb, J.; Hussain, Z.; Khalid, R.; Zahid, H. Potential perspectives of biodegradable plastics for food packaging application-review of properties and recent developments. Food Addit. Contam. Part A 2020, 37, 665–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Ehsani, A.; Kia, E.M.; Khezerlou, A. Microbial gums: Introducing a novel functional component of edible coatings and packaging. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2019, 103, 6853–6866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Angellier-Coussy, H.; Chalier, P.; Gastaldi, E.; Guillard, V.; Guillaume, C.; Gontard, N.; Peyron, S. Protein-based nanocomposites for food packaging. Biopolym. Nanocompos. Process. Prop. Appl. 2013, 613–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Cazón, P.; Velazquez, G.; Ramírez, J.A.; Vázquez, M. Polysaccharide-based films and coatings for food packaging: A review. Food Hydrocoll. 2017, 68, 136–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Iordanskii, A. Bio-Based and Biodegradable Plastics: From Passive Barrier to Active Packaging Behavior. Polymers 2020, 12, 1537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Rhim, J.-W.; Park, H.-M.; Ha, C.-S. Bio-nanocomposites for food packaging applications. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2013, 38, 1629–1652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Bhargava, N.; Sharanagat, V.S.; Mor, R.S.; Kumar, K. Active and intelligent biodegradable packaging films using food and food waste-derived bioactive compounds: A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 105, 385–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Mellinas, C.; Ramos, M.; Jiménez, A.; Garrigós, M.C. Recent Trends in the Use of Pectin from Agro-Waste Residues as a Natural-Based Biopolymer for Food Packaging Applications. Materials 2020, 13, 673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Kakadellis, S.; Harris, Z.M. Don’t scrap the waste: The need for broader system boundaries in bioplastic food packaging life-cycle assessment—A critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 274, 122831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Motelica, L.; Ficai, D.; Ficai, A.; Oprea, O.C.; Kaya, D.A.; Andronescu, E. Biodegradable Antimicrobial Food Packaging: Trends and Perspectives. Foods 2020, 9, 1438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Łupina, K.; Kowalczyk, D.; Zięba, E.; Kazimierczak, W.; Mężyńska, M.; Basiura-Cembala, M.; Wiącek, A.E. Edible films made from blends of gelatin and polysaccharide-based emulsifiers-A comparative study. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 96, 555–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Yong, H.; Liu, J. Recent advances in the preparation, physical and functional properties, and applications of anthocyanins-based active and intelligent packaging films. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2020, 26, 100550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Realini, C.E.; Marcos, B. Active and intelligent packaging systems for a modern society. Meat Sci. 2014, 98, 404–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Mohammadian, E.; Rhim, J.-W.; Jafari, S.M. pH-sensitive (halochromic) smart packaging films based on natural food colorants for the monitoring of food quality. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 105, 93–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Mohammadian, E.; Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Jafari, S.M. Smart monitoring of gas/temperature changes within food packaging based on natural colorants. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2020, 19, 2885–2931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Asgher, M.; Qamar, S.A.; Bilal, M.; Iqbal, H.M.N. Bio-based active food packaging materials: Sustainable alternative to conventional petrochemical-based packaging materials. Food Res. Int. 2020, 137, 109625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Kurek, M.; Garofulić, I.E.; Bakić, M.T.; Ščetar, M.; Uzelac, V.D.; Galić, K. Development and evaluation of a novel antioxidant and pH indicator film based on chitosan and food waste sources of antioxidants. Food Hydrocoll. 2018, 84, 238–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Luchese, C.L.; Sperotto, N.; Spada, J.C.; Tessaro, I.C. Effect of blueberry agro-industrial waste addition to corn starch-based films for the production of a pH-indicator film. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2017, 104, 11–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Dilkes-Hoffman, L.S.; Lane, J.L.; Grant, T.; Pratt, S.; Lant, P.A.; Laycock, B. Environmental impact of biodegradable food packaging when considering food waste. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 180, 325–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Pires, J.R.A.; de Souza, V.G.L.; Fernando, A.L. Chitosan/montmorillonite bionanocomposites incorporated with rosemary and ginger essential oil as packaging for fresh poultry meat. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2018, 17, 142–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Souza, V.G.L.; Pires, J.R.; Vieira, É.T.; Coelhoso, I.M.; Duarte, M.P.; Fernando, A.L. Activity of chitosan-montmorillonite bionanocomposites incorporated with rosemary essential oil: From in vitro assays to application in fresh poultry meat. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 89, 241–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Azizi-Lalabadi, M.; Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Divband, B.; Ehsani, A.; McClements, D.J. Nanocomposite films consisting of functional nanoparticles (TiO2 and ZnO) embedded in 4A-Zeolite and mixed polymer matrices (gelatin and polyvinyl alcohol). Food Res. Int. 2020, 137, 109716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Kia, E.M.; Ghasempour, Z.; Ehsani, A. Preparation of active nanocomposite film consisting of sodium caseinate, ZnO nanoparticles and rosemary essential oil for food packaging applications. J. Polym. Environ. 2021, 29, 588–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Khezerlou, A.; Ehsani, A. Fabrication and characterization of the bionanocomposite film based on whey protein biopolymer loaded with TiO2 nanoparticles, cellulose nanofibers and rosemary essential oil. Ind. Crops Prod. 2018, 124, 300–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Sarwar, M.S.; Niazi, M.B.K.; Jahan, Z.; Ahmad, T.; Hussain, A. Preparation and characterization of PVA/nanocellulose/Ag nanocomposite films for antimicrobial food packaging. Carbohydr. Polym. 2018, 184, 453–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Sani, M.A.; Tavassoli, M.; Hamishehkar, H.; McClements, D.J. Carbohydrate-based films containing pH-sensitive red barberry anthocyanins: Application as biodegradable smart food packaging materials. Carbohydr. Polym. 2021, 255, 117488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Singh, T.V.; Shagolsem, L.S. Shagolsem, Biopolymer Based Nano-Structured Materials and Their Applications, in Nanostructured Materials and Their Applications; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; pp. 337–366. [Google Scholar]
  30. Havstad, M.R. Biodegradable plastics. In Plastic Waste and Recycling; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 97–129. [Google Scholar]
  31. Ahmadi, A.; Ahmadi, P.; Sani, M.A.; Ehsani, A.; Ghanbarzadeh, B. Functional biocompatible nanocomposite films consisting of selenium and zinc oxide nanoparticles embedded in gelatin/cellulose nanofiber matrices. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021, 175, 87–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Narasagoudr, S.S.; Hegde, V.G.; Chougale, R.B.; Masti, S.P.; Dixit, S. Influence of boswellic acid on multifunctional properties of chitosan/poly (vinyl alcohol) films for active food packaging. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 154, 48–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Riahi, Z.; Priyadarshi, R.; Rhim, J.-W.; Bagheri, R. Gelatin-based functional films integrated with grapefruit seed extract and TiO2 for active food packaging applications. Food Hydrocoll. 2021, 112, 106314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Sharma, S.; Jaiswal, A.K.; Duffy, B.; Jaiswal, S. Ferulic acid incorporated active films based on poly(lactide)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) blend for food packaging. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2020, 24, 100491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Suwanamornlert, P.; Kerddonfag, N.; Sane, A.; Chinsirikul, W.; Zhou, W.; Chonhenchob, V. Poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene-succinate-co-adipate) (PLA/PBSA) blend films containing thymol as alternative to synthetic preservatives for active packaging of bread. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2020, 25, 100515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Ceballos, R.L.; Ochoa-Yepes, O.; Goyanes, S.; Bernal, C.; Famá, L. Effect of yerba mate extract on the performance of starch films obtained by extrusion and compression molding as active and smart packaging. Carbohydr. Polym. 2020, 244, 116495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Chenwei, C.; Zhipeng, T.; Yarui, M.; Weiqiang, Q.; Fuxin, Y.; Jun, M.; Jing, X. Physicochemical, microstructural, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of active packaging films based on poly(vinyl alcohol)/clay nanocomposite incorporated with tea polyphenols. Prog. Org. Coat. 2018, 123, 176–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Yadav, S.; Mehrotra, G.K.; Dutta, P.K. Chitosan based ZnO nanoparticles loaded gallic-acid films for active food packaging. Food Chem. 2021, 334, 127605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Jha, P. Effect of grapefruit seed extract ratios on functional properties of corn starch-chitosan bionanocomposite films for active packaging. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 163, 1546–1556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Nur Amila Najwa, I.S.; Mat Yusoff, M.; Nur Hanani, Z.A. Potential of Silver-Kaolin in Gelatin Composite Films as Active Food Packaging Materials. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2020, 26, 100564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Rhim, J.-W.; Azizi-Lalabadi, M.; Hemmati-Dinarvand, M.; Ehsani, A. Preparation and characterization of functional sodium caseinate/guar gum/TiO2/cumin essential oil composite film. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 145, 835–844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Tavassoli, M.; McClements, D.J.; Hamishehkar, H. Multifunctional halochromic packaging materials: Saffron petal anthocyanin loaded-chitosan nanofiber/methyl cellulose matrices. Food Hydrocoll. 2021, 111, 106237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Andretta, R.; Luchese, C.L.; Tessaro, I.C.; Spada, J.C. Development and characterization of pH-indicator films based on cassava starch and blueberry residue by thermocompression. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 93, 317–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Wang, X.; Yong, H.; Gao, L.; Li, L.; Jin, M.; Liu, J. Preparation and characterization of antioxidant and pH-sensitive films based on chitosan and black soybean seed coat extract. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 89, 56–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Musso, Y.S.; Salgado, P.R.; Mauri, A.N. Smart gelatin films prepared using red cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) extracts as solvent. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 89, 674–681. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Yong, H.; Wang, X.; Bai, R.; Miao, Z.; Zhang, X.; Liu, J. Development of antioxidant and intelligent pH-sensing packaging films by incorporating purple-fleshed sweet potato extract into chitosan matrix. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 90, 216–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Huang, S.; Xiong, Y.; Zou, Y.; Dong, Q.; Ding, F.; Liu, X.; Li, H. A novel colorimetric indicator based on agar incorporated with Arnebia euchroma root extracts for monitoring fish freshness. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 90, 198–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Musso, Y.S.; Salgado, P.R.; Mauri, A.N. Smart edible films based on gelatin and curcumin. Food Hydrocoll. 2017, 66, 8–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Liu, J.; Wang, H.; Wang, P.; Guo, M.; Jiang, S.; Li, X.; Jiang, S. Films based on κ-carrageenan incorporated with curcumin for freshness monitoring. Food Hydrocoll. 2018, 83, 134–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Ezati, P.; Rhim, J.-W. pH-responsive chitosan-based film incorporated with alizarin for intelligent packaging applications. Food Hydrocoll. 2020, 102, 105629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Mangaraj, S.; Yadav, A.; Bal, L.M.; Dash, S.; Mahanti, N.K. Application of biodegradable polymers in food packaging industry: A comprehensive review. J. Packag. Technol. Res. 2019, 3, 77–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Shendurse, A.; Gopikrishna, G.; Patel, A.; Pandya, A. Milk protein based edible films and coatings–preparation, properties and food applications. J. Nutr. Health Food Eng. 2018, 8, 219–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  53. Qiu, Y.-T.; Wang, B.-J.; Weng, Y.-M. Preparation and characterization of genipin cross-linked and lysozyme incorporated antimicrobial sodium caseinate edible films. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2020, 26, 100601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Azevedo, V.M.; Dias, M.V.; Borges, S.V.; Fernandes, R.V.d.B.; Silva, E.K.; Medeiros, É.A.; Ferreira Soares, N.d.F. Optical and structural properties of biodegradable whey protein isolate nanocomposite films for active packaging. Int. J. Food Prop. 2017, 20, 1869–1878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Schmid, M.; Proels, S.; Kainz, D.M.; Hammann, F. Effect of thermally induced denaturation on molecular interaction-response relationships of whey protein isolate based films and coatings. Prog. Org. Coat. 2017, 104, 161–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Akhtar, M.-J.; Aïder, M. Study of the Barrier and Mechanical Properties of Packaging Edible Films Fabricated with Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose (HPMC) Combined with Electro-Activated Whey. J. Packag. Technol. Res. 2018, 2, 169–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Chalermthai, B.; Chan, W.Y.; Bastidas-Oyanedel, J.-R.; Taher, H.; Olsen, B.D.; Schmidt, J.E. Preparation and characterization of whey protein-based polymers produced from residual dairy streams. Polymers 2019, 11, 722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  58. Brady, J.W. Introductory Food Chemistry; Cornell University Press: Ithaca, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  59. Rakhmanova, A.; Khan, Z.; Sharif, R.; Lv, X. Meeting the requirements of halal gelatin: A mini review. MOJ Food Proc. Technol. 2018, 6, 477–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Karim, A.; Bhat, R. Fish gelatin: Properties, challenges, and prospects as an alternative to mammalian gelatins. Food Hydrocoll. 2009, 23, 563–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Gornall, J.L.; Terentjev, E.M. Helix–coil transition of gelatin: Helical morphology and stability. Soft Matter 2008, 4, 544–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Mohamed, S.A.; El-Sakhawy, M.; Nashy, E.-S.H.; Othman, A.M. Novel natural composite films as packaging materials with enhanced properties. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 136, 774–784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Liu, D.; Nikoo, M.; Boran, G.; Zhou, P.; Regenstein, J.M. Collagen and gelatin. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 6, 527–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Reddy, N.; Yang, Y. Thermoplastic films from plant proteins. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2013, 130, 729–738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Vahedikia, N.; Garavand, F.; Tajeddin, B.; Cacciotti, I.; Jafari, S.M.; Omidi, T.; Zahedi, Z. Biodegradable zein film composites reinforced with chitosan nanoparticles and cinnamon essential oil: Physical, mechanical, structural and antimicrobial attributes. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2019, 177, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Ünalan, İ.U.; Korel, F.; Yemenicioğlu, A. Active packaging of ground beef patties by edible zein films incorporated with partially purified lysozyme and Na2EDTA. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2011, 46, 1289–1295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  67. Rakotonirainy, A.; Wang, Q.; Padua, G.W. Evaluation of zein films as modified atmosphere packaging for fresh broccoli. J. Food Sci. 2001, 66, 1108–1111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Visakh, P. Soy Protein: State-of-the-Art, New Challenges and Opportunities. SOY Protein Based Blends Compos. Nanocompos. 2017, 1–21. [Google Scholar]
  69. Dos Santos Paglione, I.; Galindo, M.V.; de Souza, K.C.; Yamashita, F.; Grosso, C.R.F.; Sakanaka, L.S.; Shirai, M.A. Optimization of the conditions for producing soy protein isolate films. Emir. J. Food Agric. 2019, 297–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Ortiz, C.M.; de Moraes, J.O.; Vicente, A.R.; Laurindo, J.B.; Mauri, A.N. Scale-up of the production of soy (Glycine max L.) protein films using tape casting: Formulation of film-forming suspension and drying conditions. Food Hydrocoll. 2017, 66, 110–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Lodha, P.; Netravali, A.N. Thermal and mechanical properties of environment-friendly ‘green’plastics from stearic acid modified-soy protein isolate. Ind. Crops Prod. 2005, 21, 49–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Mohareb, E.; Mittal, G.S. Formulation and process conditions for biodegradable/edible soy-based packaging trays. Packag. Technol. Sci. Int. J. 2007, 20, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Yu, X.; Chen, L.; Jin, Z.; Jiao, A. Research progress of starch-based biodegradable materials: A review. J. Mater. Sci. 2021, 1–22. [Google Scholar]
  74. Shirazani, M.T.; Bakhshi, H.; Rashidi, A.; Taghizadeh, M. Starch-based activated carbon micro-spheres for adsorption of methane with superior performance in ANG technology. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 103910. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Ilyas, R.; Sapuan, S.; Ishak, M.; Zainudin, E. Sugar palm nanocrystalline cellulose reinforced sugar palm starch composite: Degradation and water-barrier properties. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK; Chicago, IL, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  76. Palma-Rodríguez, H.M.; Aguirre-Álvarez, G.; Chavarría-Hernández, N.; Rodríguez-Hernández, A.I.; Bello-Pérez, L.A.; Vargas-Torres, A. Oxidized banana starch–polyvinyl alcohol film: Partial characterization. Starch Stärke 2012, 64, 882–889. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Klemm, D.; Kramer, F.; Moritz, S.; Lindström, T.; Ankerfors, M.; Gray, D.; Dorris, A. Nanocelluloses: A new family of nature-based materials. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 5438–5466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Moghimi, R.; Aliahmadi, A.; Rafati, H. Antibacterial hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose edible films containing nanoemulsions of Thymus daenensis essential oil for food packaging. Carbohydr. Polym. 2017, 175, 241–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Tavassoli, M.; Mohammadian, E.; Ehsani, A.; Khaniki, G.J.; Priyadarshi, R.; Rhim, J.-W. pH-responsive color indicator films based on methylcellulose/chitosan nanofiber and barberry anthocyanins for real-time monitoring of meat freshness. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 166, 741–750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  80. Jha, P.; Dharmalingam, K.; Nishizu, T.; Katsuno, N.; Anandalakshmi, R. Effect of Amylose–Amylopectin Ratios on Physical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties of Starch-Based Bionanocomposite Films Incorporated with CMC and Nanoclay. Starch-Stärke 2020, 72, 1900121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Tabari, M. Investigation of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) on mechanical properties of cold water fish gelatin biodegradable edible films. Foods 2017, 6, 41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  82. Venkatachalam, K.; Lekjing, S. A chitosan-based edible film with clove essential oil and nisin for improving the quality and shelf life of pork patties in cold storage. RSC Adv. 2020, 10, 17777–17786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Ngo, T.M.P.; Nguyen, T.H.; Dang, T.M.Q.; Tran, T.X.; Rachtanapun, P. Characteristics and antimicrobial properties of active edible films based on pectin and nanochitosan. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 2224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  84. Rai, S.K.; Chaturvedi, K.; Yadav, S.K. Evaluation of structural integrity and functionality of commercial pectin based edible films incorporated with corn flour, beetroot, orange peel, muesli and rice flour. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 91, 127–135. [Google Scholar]
  85. Bermúdez-Oria, A.; Rodríguez-Gutiérrez, G.; Vioque, B.; Rubio-Senent, F.; Fernández-Bolaños, J. Physical and functional properties of pectin-fish gelatin films containing the olive phenols hydroxytyrosol and 3, 4-dihydroxyphenylglycol. Carbohydr. Polym. 2017, 178, 368–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Valdés, A.; Burgos, N.; Jiménez, A.; Garrigós, M.C. Natural pectin polysaccharides as edible coatings. Coatings 2015, 5, 865–886. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  87. Stephen, A.J.; Phillips, G.O.; Williams, P.A. Food Polysaccharides and Their Applications, 2nd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  88. Williams, P.A.; Phillips, G.O. Handbook of Hydrocolloids, 3rd ed.; Woodhead Publishing: Kidlington, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  89. Akoh, C.C. Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition and Biotechnology; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  90. Belitz, H.-D.; Grosch, W.; Schieberle, P. Food Cemistry; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  91. Chow, C.K. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
  92. Galus, S.; Arik Kibar, E.A.; Gniewosz, M.; Kraśniewska, K. Novel materials in the preparation of edible films and coatings—A review. Coatings 2020, 10, 674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Mohamed, S.A.; El-Sakhawy, M.; El-Sakhawy, M.A.-M. Polysaccharides, protein and lipid-based natural edible films in food packaging: A review. Carbohydr. Polym. 2020, 238, 116178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Rodrigues, D.C.; Cunha, A.P.; Brito, E.S.; Azeredo, H.M.; Gallão, M.I. Mesquite seed gum and palm fruit oil emulsion edible films: Influence of oil content and sonication. Food Hydrocoll. 2016, 56, 227–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Vargas, M.; Albors, A.; Chiralt, A. Application of chitosan-sunflower oil edible films to pork meat hamburgers. Procedia Food Sci. 2011, 1, 39–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  96. Randazzo, W.; Jiménez-Belenguer, A.; Settanni, L.; Perdones, A.; Moschetti, M.; Palazzolo, E.; Guarrasi, V.; Vargas, M.; Germanà, M.A.; Moschetti, G. Antilisterial effect of citrus essential oils and their performance in edible film formulations. Food Control 2016, 59, 750–758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  97. Syafiq, R.; Sapuan, S.; Zuhri, M.; Ilyas, R.; Nazrin, A.; Sherwani, S.; Khalina, A. Antimicrobial activities of starch-based biopolymers and biocomposites incorporated with plant essential oils: A review. Polymers 2020, 12, 2403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Roy, S.; Rhim, J.-W. Anthocyanin food colorant and its application in pH-responsive color change indicator films. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2020, In press, 1–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Zhao, L.; Duan, G.; Zhang, G.; Yang, H.; He, S.; Jiang, S. Electrospun functional materials toward food packaging applications: A review. Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  100. Asad, M.; Saba, N.; Asiri, A.M.; Jawaid, M.; Indarti, E.; Wanrosli, W. Preparation and characterization of nanocomposite films from oil palm pulp nanocellulose/poly (Vinyl alcohol) by casting method. Carbohydr. Polym. 2018, 191, 103–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Khan, W.S.; Asmatulu, R.; Ceylan, M.; Jabbarnia, A. Recent progress on conventional and non-conventional electrospinning processes. Fibers Polym. 2013, 14, 1235–1247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Park, S.; Park, K.; Yoon, H.; Son, J.; Min, T.; Kim, G. Apparatus for preparing electrospun nanofibers: Designing an electrospinning process for nanofiber fabrication. Polym. Int. 2007, 56, 1361–1366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Zhan, S.; Chen, D.; Jiao, X.; Tao, C. Long TiO2 hollow fibers with mesoporous walls: Sol− gel combined electrospun fabrication and photocatalytic properties. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 11199–11204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Zhang, C.; Li, Y.; Wang, P.; Zhang, H. Electrospinning of nanofibers: Potentials and perspectives for active food packaging. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2020, 19, 479–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  105. Hyvärinen, M.; Jabeen, R.; Kärki, T. The Modelling of Extrusion Processes for Polymers—A Review. Polymers 2020, 12, 1306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Krepker, M.; Zhang, C.; Nitzan, N.; Prinz-Setter, O.; Massad-Ivanir, N.; Olah, A.; Baer, E.; Segal, E. Antimicrobial LDPE/EVOH layered films containing carvacrol fabricated by multiplication extrusion. Polymers 2018, 10, 864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  107. Guerrero, P.; Muxika, A.; Zarandona, I.; De La Caba, K. Crosslinking of chitosan films processed by compression molding. Carbohydr. Polym. 2019, 206, 820–826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  108. Yildirim, S.; Röcker, B.; Pettersen, M.K.; Nilsen-Nygaard, J.; Ayhan, Z.; Rutkaite, R.; Radusin, T.; Suminska, P.; Marcos, B.; Coma, V. Active Packaging Applications for Food. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2018, 17, 165–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  109. Maisanaba, S.; Llana-Ruiz-Cabello, M.; Gutiérrez-Praena, D.; Pichardo, S.; Puerto, M.; Prieto, A.I.; Jos, A.; Cameán, A.M. New advances in active packaging incorporated with essential oils or their main components for food preservation. Food Rev. Int. 2017, 33, 447–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Ozdemir, M.; Floros, J.D. Active Food Packaging Technologies. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2004, 44, 185–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  111. Moreirinha, C.; Vilela, C.; Silva, N.H.C.S.; Pinto, R.J.B.; Almeida, A.; Rocha, M.A.M.; Coelho, E.; Coimbra, M.A.; Silvestre, A.J.D.; Freire, C.S.R. Antioxidant and antimicrobial films based on brewers spent grain arabinoxylans, nanocellulose and feruloylated compounds for active packaging. Food Hydrocoll. 2020, 108, 105836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Azizi-Lalabadi, M.; Ehsani, A.; Ghanbarzadeh, B.; Divband, B. Polyvinyl alcohol/gelatin nanocomposite containing ZnO, TiO2 or ZnO/TiO2 nanoparticles doped on 4A zeolite: Microbial and sensory qualities of packaged white shrimp during refrigeration. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2020, 312, 108375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  113. Alizadeh-Sani, M.; Mohammadian, E.; McClements, D.J. Eco-friendly active packaging consisting of nanostructured biopolymer matrix reinforced with TiO2 and essential oil: Application for preservation of refrigerated meat. Food Chem. 2020, 322, 126782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Sun, L.; Sun, J.; Chen, L.; Niu, P.; Yang, X.; Guo, Y. Preparation and characterization of chitosan film incorporated with thinned young apple polyphenols as an active packaging material. Carbohydr. Polym. 2017, 163, 81–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  115. Gómez-Estaca, J.; López-de-Dicastillo, C.; Hernández-Muñoz, P.; Catalá, R.; Gavara, R. Advances in antioxidant active food packaging. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 35, 42–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Liu, J.; Meng, C.-G.; Liu, S.; Kan, J.; Jin, C.-H. Preparation and characterization of protocatechuic acid grafted chitosan films with antioxidant activity. Food Hydrocoll. 2017, 63, 457–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Khajeh, B.; Dashti-Khavidaki, S.; Nasiri-Toosi, M.; Mohammadi, K.; Jafari, A. Effects of pre-transplant L-carnitine supplementation on primary graft dysfunction in liver transplant recipients: A pilot, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Res. Pharm. Sci. 2019, 14, 504–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Pereira, V.A.; de Arruda, I.N.Q.; Stefani, R. Active chitosan/PVA films with anthocyanins from Brassica oleraceae (Red Cabbage) as Time–Temperature Indicators for application in intelligent food packaging. Food Hydrocoll. 2015, 43, 180–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Aday, M.S.; Caner, C. The Applications of ‘active packaging and chlorine dioxide’ for extended shelf life of fresh strawberries. Packag. Technol. Sci. 2011, 24, 123–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  120. Shruthy, R.; Jancy, S.; Preetha, R. Cellulose nanoparticles synthesised from potato peel for the development of active packaging film for enhancement of shelf life of raw prawns (Penaeus monodon) during frozen storage. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Jongjareonrak, A.; Benjakul, S.; Visessanguan, W.; Tanaka, M. Antioxidative activity and properties of fish skin gelatin films incorporated with BHT and α-tocopherol. Food Hydrocoll. 2008, 22, 449–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Komes, D.; Horžić, D.; Belščak, A.; Ganić, K.K.; Vulić, I. Green tea preparation and its influence on the content of bioactive compounds. Food Res. Int. 2010, 43, 167–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Li, J.-H.; Miao, J.; Wu, J.-L.; Chen, S.-F.; Zhang, Q.-Q. Preparation and characterization of active gelatin-based films incorporated with natural antioxidants. Food Hydrocoll. 2014, 37, 166–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Kamkar, A.; Molaee-Aghaee, E.; Khanjari, A.; Akhondzadeh-Basti, A.; Noudoost, B.; Shariatifar, N.; Sani, M.A.; Soleimani, M. Nanocomposite active packaging based on chitosan biopolymer loaded with nano-liposomal essential oil: Its characterizations and effects on microbial, and chemical properties of refrigerated chicken breast fillet. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2021, 342, 109071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. Burt, S. Essential oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods—A review. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2004, 94, 223–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Ribeiro-Santos, R.; Andrade, M.; Melo, N.R.d.; Sanches-Silva, A. Use of essential oils in active food packaging: Recent advances and future trends. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2017, 61, 132–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  127. Djenane, D. Chemical Profile, Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activity of Algerian Citrus Essential Oils and Their Application in Sardina pilchardus. Foods 2015, 4, 208–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  128. Campos-Requena, V.H.; Rivas, B.L.; Pérez, M.A.; Figueroa, C.R.; Sanfuentes, E.A. The synergistic antimicrobial effect of carvacrol and thymol in clay/polymer nanocomposite films over strawberry gray mold. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 64, 390–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Wiburanawong, S.; Petchwattana, N.; Covavisaruch, S. Carvacrol as an Antimicrobial Agent for Poly(butylene succinate): Tensile Properties and Antimicrobial Activity Observations. Adv. Mater. Res. 2014, 931–932, 111–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  130. Zaman, H.U.; Hun, P.D.; Khan, R.A.; Yoon, K.-B. Morphology, mechanical, and crystallization behaviors of micro- and nano-ZnO filled polypropylene composites. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 2012, 31, 323–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Kim, I.; Viswanathan, K.; Kasi, G.; Thanakkasaranee, S.; Sadeghi, K.; Seo, J. ZnO Nanostructures in Active Antibacterial Food Packaging: Preparation Methods, Antimicrobial Mechanisms, Safety Issues, Future Prospects, and Challenges. Food Rev. Int. 2020, 1–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  132. Liang, T.; Sun, G.; Cao, L.; Li, J.; Wang, L. A pH and NH3 sensing intelligent film based on Artemisia sphaerocephala Krasch. gum and red cabbage anthocyanins anchored by carboxymethyl cellulose sodium added as a host complex. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 87, 858–868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. Tavassoli, M.; Sani, M.A.; Khezerlou, A.; Ehsani, A.; McClements, D.J. Multifunctional nanocomposite active packaging materials: Immobilization of quercetin, lactoferrin, and chitosan nanofiber particles in gelatin films. Food Hydrocoll. 2021, 118, 106747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. Mousavi Khaneghah, A.; Hashemi, S.M.B.; Limbo, S. Antimicrobial agents and packaging systems in antimicrobial active food packaging: An overview of approaches and interactions. Food Bioprod. Process. 2018, 111, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Li, M.; Yu, H.; Xie, Y.; Guo, Y.; Cheng, Y.; Qian, H.; Yao, W. Fabrication of eugenol loaded gelatin nanofibers by electrospinning technique as active packaging material. LWT 2021, 139, 110800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  136. Szabo, K.; Teleky, B.-E.; Mitrea, L.; Călinoiu, L.-F.; Martău, G.-A.; Simon, E.; Varvara, R.-A.; Vodnar, D.C. Active Packaging—Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) Films Enriched with Tomato By-Products Extract. Coatings 2020, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  137. Randazzo, W.; Fabra, M.J.; Falcó, I.; López-Rubio, A.; Sánchez, G. Polymers and Biopolymers with Antiviral Activity: Potential Applications for Improving Food Safety. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2018, 17, 754–768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  138. Amankwaah, C. Incorporation of Selected Plant Extracts into Edible Chitosan Films and the Effect on the Antiviral, Antibacterial and Mechanical Properties of the Material. Ph.D. Thesis, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  139. Martínez-Abad, A.; Ocio, M.J.; Lagarón, J.M.; Sánchez, G. Evaluation of silver-infused polylactide films for inactivation of Salmonella and feline calicivirus in vitro and on fresh-cut vegetables. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2013, 162, 89–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  140. Balaguer, M.P.; Lopez-Carballo, G.; Catala, R.; Gavara, R.; Hernandez-Munoz, P. Antifungal properties of gliadin films incorporating cinnamaldehyde and application in active food packaging of bread and cheese spread foodstuffs. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2013, 166, 369–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  141. Dey, A.; Neogi, S. Oxygen scavengers for food packaging applications: A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 90, 26–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  142. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Polyphenol and flavonoid profiles and radical scavenging activity in leafy vegetable Amaranthus gangeticus. BMC Plant Biol. 2020, 20, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  143. Pant, A.F.; Sängerlaub, S.; Müller, K. Gallic Acid as an Oxygen Scavenger in Bio-Based Multilayer Packaging Films. Materials 2017, 10, 489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  144. Gaikwad, K.K.; Singh, S.; Negi, Y.S. Ethylene scavengers for active packaging of fresh food produce. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2020, 18, 269–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  145. Romani, V.P.; Martins, V.G.; Goddard, J.M. Radical scavenging polyethylene films as antioxidant active packaging materials. Food Control 2020, 109, 106946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  146. Zhang, X.; Liu, Y.; Yong, H.; Qin, Y.; Liu, J.; Liu, J. Development of multifunctional food packaging films based on chitosan, TiO2 nanoparticles and anthocyanin-rich black plum peel extract. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 94, 80–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  147. Sharma, R.; Ghoshal, G. Emerging trends in food packaging. Nutr. Food Sci. 2018, 48, 764–779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  148. Kadam, A.A.; Singh, S.; Gaikwad, K.K. Chitosan based antioxidant films incorporated with pine needles (Cedrus deodara) extract for active food packaging applications. Food Control 2021, 107877. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  149. Zhang, N.; Bi, F.; Xu, F.; Yong, H.; Bao, Y.; Jin, C.; Liu, J. Structure and functional properties of active packaging films prepared by incorporating different flavonols into chitosan based matrix. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 165, 625–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  150. Lukic, I.; Vulic, J.; Ivanovic, J. Antioxidant activity of PLA/PCL films loaded with thymol and/or carvacrol using scCO2 for active food packaging. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2020, 26, 100578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  151. Mohamad, N.; Mazlan, M.M.; Tawakkal, I.S.M.A.; Talib, R.A.; Kian, L.K.; Fouad, H.; Jawaid, M. Development of active agents filled polylactic acid films for food packaging application. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 163, 1451–1457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  152. Zinoviadou, K.G.; Koutsoumanis, K.P.; Biliaderis, C.G. Physical and thermo-mechanical properties of whey protein isolate films containing antimicrobials, and their effect against spoilage flora of fresh beef. Food Hydrocoll. 2010, 24, 49–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  153. Youssef, A.M.; El-Sayed, S.M.; El-Sayed, H.S.; Salama, H.H.; Dufresne, A. Enhancement of Egyptian soft white cheese shelf life using a novel chitosan/carboxymethyl cellulose/zinc oxide bionanocomposite film. Carbohydr. Polym. 2016, 151, 9–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  154. Higueras, L.; López-Carballo, G.; Hernández-Muñoz, P.; Gavara, R.; Rollini, M. Development of a novel antimicrobial film based on chitosan with LAE (ethyl-Nα-dodecanoyl-l-arginate) and its application to fresh chicken. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2013, 165, 339–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  155. Aydemir Sezer, U.; Sanko, V.; Yuksekdag, Z.N.; Uzundağ, D.; Sezer, S. Use of oxidized regenerated cellulose as bactericidal filler for food packaging applications. Cellulose 2016, 23, 3209–3219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  156. Li, L.; Zhao, C.; Zhang, Y.; Yao, J.; Yang, W.; Hu, Q.; Wang, C.; Cao, C. Effect of stable antimicrobial nano-silver packaging on inhibiting mildew and in storage of rice. Food Chem. 2017, 215, 477–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  157. Azlin-Hasim, S.; Cruz-Romero, M.C.; Morris, M.A.; Padmanabhan, S.C.; Cummins, E.; Kerry, J.P. The Potential Application of Antimicrobial Silver Polyvinyl Chloride Nanocomposite Films to Extend the Shelf-Life of Chicken Breast Fillets. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2016, 9, 1661–1673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  158. Akbar, A.; Anal, A.K. Zinc oxide nanoparticles loaded active packaging, a challenge study against Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat poultry meat. Food Control 2014, 38, 88–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  159. Min, S.; Harris, L.J.; Krochta, J.M. Antimicrobial Effects of Lactoferrin, Lysozyme, and the Lactoperoxidase System and Edible Whey Protein Films Incorporating the Lactoperoxidase System Against Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli O157:H7. J. Food Sci. 2005, 70, m332–m338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  160. Biji, K.; Ravishankar, C.; Mohan, C.; Gopal, T.S. Smart packaging systems for food applications: A review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 52, 6125–6135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  161. Kuswandi, B.; Wicaksono, Y.; Abdullah, A.; Heng, L.Y.; Ahmad, M. Smart packaging: Sensors for monitoring of food quality and safety. Sens. Instrum. Food Qual. Saf. 2011, 5, 137–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  162. Vo, T.-V.; Dang, T.-H.; Chen, B.-H. Synthesis of Intelligent pH Indicative Films from Chitosan/Poly(vinyl alcohol)/Anthocyanin Extracted from Red Cabbage. Polymers 2019, 11, 1088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  163. Zhang, J.; Zou, X.; Zhai, X.; Huang, X.; Jiang, C.; Holmes, M. Preparation of an intelligent pH film based on biodegradable polymers and roselle anthocyanins for monitoring pork freshness. Food Chem. 2019, 272, 306–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  164. Sun, G.; Chi, W.; Zhang, C.; Xu, S.; Li, J.; Wang, L. Developing a green film with pH-sensitivity and antioxidant activity based on к-carrageenan and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose incorporating Prunus maackii juice. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 94, 345–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  165. Wardana, A.A.; Widyaningsih, T.D. Development of edible films from tapioca starch and agar, enriched with red cabbage (Brassica oleracea) as a sausage deterioration bio-indicator. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2017, 109, 012031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  166. Luchese, C.L.; Abdalla, V.F.; Spada, J.C.; Tessaro, I.C. Evaluation of blueberry residue incorporated cassava starch film as pH indicator in different simulants and foodstuffs. Food Hydrocoll. 2018, 82, 209–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  167. Bandyopadhyay, S.; Saha, N.; Zandraa, O.; Pummerová, M.; Sáha, P. Essential Oil Based PVP-CMC-BC-GG Functional Hydrogel Sachet for ‘Cheese’: Its Shelf Life Confirmed with Anthocyanin (Isolated from Red Cabbage) Bio Stickers. Foods 2020, 9, 307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  168. Zhai, X.; Li, Z.; Zhang, J.; Shi, J.; Zou, X.; Huang, X.; Zhang, D.; Sun, Y.; Yang, Z.; Holmes, M.; et al. Natural Biomaterial-Based Edible and pH-Sensitive Films Combined with Electrochemical Writing for Intelligent Food Packaging. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 66, 12836–12846. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  169. Othman, M.; Yusup, A.A.; Zakaria, N.; Khalid, K. Bio-polymer chitosan and corn starch with extract of hibiscus rosa-sinensis (hibiscus) as PH indicator for visually-smart food packaging. AIP Conf. Proc. 2018, 1985, 050004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  170. Aghaei, Z.; Emadzadeh, B.; Ghorani, B.; Kadkhodaee, R. Cellulose Acetate Nanofibres Containing Alizarin as a Halochromic Sensor for the Qualitative Assessment of Rainbow Trout Fish Spoilage. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2018, 11, 1087–1095. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  171. Moradi, M.; Tajik, H.; Almasi, H.; Forough, M.; Ezati, P. A novel pH-sensing indicator based on bacterial cellulose nanofibers and black carrot anthocyanins for monitoring fish freshness. Carbohydr. Polym. 2019, 222, 115030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  172. Apriliyanti, M.W.; Wahyono, A.; Fatoni, M.; Poerwanto, B.; Suryaningsih, W. The Potency of betacyanins extract from a peel of dragon fruits as a source of colourimetric indicator to develop intelligent packaging for fish freshness monitoring. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2018, 207, 012038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  173. Latos-Brozio, M.; Masek, A. The application of natural food colorants as indicator substances in intelligent biodegradable packaging materials. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2020, 135, 110975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  174. Zhai, X.; Shi, J.; Zou, X.; Wang, S.; Jiang, C.; Zhang, J.; Huang, X.; Zhang, W.; Holmes, M. Novel colorimetric films based on starch/polyvinyl alcohol incorporated with roselle anthocyanins for fish freshness monitoring. Food Hydrocoll. 2017, 69, 308–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  175. Maciel, V.B.; Franco, T.T.; Yoshida, C.M. Alternative intelligent material for packaging using chitosan films as colorimetric temperature indicators. Polímeros 2012, 22, 318–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  176. Listyarini, A.; Sholihah, W.; Imawan, C. A paper-based colorimetric indicator label using natural dye for monitoring shrimp spoilage. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK; Chicago, IL, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  177. Ma, Q.; Du, L.; Wang, L. Tara gum/polyvinyl alcohol-based colorimetric NH3 indicator films incorporating curcumin for intelligent packaging. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2017, 244, 759–766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  178. Srivastava, S.; Sinha, R.; Roy, D. Toxicological effects of malachite green. Aquat. Toxicol. 2004, 66, 319–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  179. Padhi, B. Pollution due to synthetic dyes toxicity & carcinogenicity studies and remediation. Int. J. Environ. Sci. 2012, 3, 940. [Google Scholar]
  180. Suslick, K.S.; Rakow, N.A.; Sen, A. Colorimetric sensor arrays for molecular recognition. Tetrahedron 2004, 60, 11133–11138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  181. Wells, N.; Yusufu, D.; Mills, A. Colourimetric plastic film indicator for the detection of the volatile basic nitrogen compounds associated with fish spoilage. Talanta 2019, 194, 830–836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  182. Ma, Q.; Lu, X.; Wang, W.; Hubbe, M.A.; Liu, Y.; Mu, J.; Wang, J.; Sun, J.; Rojas, O.J. Recent developments in colorimetric and optical indicators stimulated by volatile base nitrogen to monitor seafood freshness. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2021, 28, 100634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  183. Zeng, P.; Chen, X.; Qin, Y.-R.; Zhang, Y.-H.; Wang, X.-P.; Wang, J.-Y.; Ning, Z.-X.; Ruan, Q.-J.; Zhang, Y.-S. Preparation and characterization of a novel colorimetric indicator film based on gelatin/polyvinyl alcohol incorporating mulberry anthocyanin extracts for monitoring fish freshness. Food Res. Int. 2019, 126, 108604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  184. Wu, C.; Sun, J.; Zheng, P.; Kang, X.; Chen, M.; Li, Y.; Ge, Y.; Hu, Y.; Pang, J. Preparation of an intelligent film based on chitosan/oxidized chitin nanocrystals incorporating black rice bran anthocyanins for seafood spoilage monitoring. Carbohydr. Polym. 2019, 222, 115006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  185. Peralta, J.; Bitencourt-Cervi, C.M.; Maciel, V.B.; Yoshida, C.M.; Carvalho, R.A. Aqueous hibiscus extract as a potential natural pH indicator incorporated in natural polymeric films. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2019, 19, 47–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  186. Qin, Y.; Liu, Y.; Yuan, L.; Yong, H.; Liu, J. Preparation and characterization of antioxidant, antimicrobial and pH-sensitive films based on chitosan, silver nanoparticles and purple corn extract. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 96, 102–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  187. Liang, T.; Sun, G.; Cao, L.; Li, J.; Wang, L. Rheological behavior of film-forming solutions and film properties from Artemisia sphaerocephala Krasch. gum and purple onion peel extract. Food Hydrocoll. 2018, 82, 124–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  188. Huang, J.; Chen, M.; Zhou, Y.; Li, Y.; Hu, Y. Functional characteristics improvement by structural modification of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose modified polyvinyl alcohol films incorporating roselle anthocyanins for shrimp freshness monitoring. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 162, 1250–1261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  189. Choi, I.; Lee, J.Y.; Lacroix, M.; Han, J. Intelligent pH indicator film composed of agar/potato starch and anthocyanin extracts from purple sweet potato. Food Chem. 2017, 218, 122–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  190. Wei, Y.-C.; Cheng, C.-H.; Ho, Y.-C.; Tsai, M.-L.; Mi, F.-L. Active gellan gum/purple sweet potato composite films capable of monitoring pH variations. Food Hydrocoll. 2017, 69, 491–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  191. Wu, C.; Li, Y.; Sun, J.; Lu, Y.; Tong, C.; Wang, L.; Yan, Z.; Pang, J. Novel konjac glucomannan films with oxidized chitin nanocrystals immobilized red cabbage anthocyanins for intelligent food packaging. Food Hydrocoll. 2020, 98, 105245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  192. Stoll, L.; Rech, R.; Flôres, S.H.; Nachtigall, S.M.B.; de Oliveira Rios, A. Carotenoids extracts as natural colorants in poly (lactic acid) films. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 46585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  193. Stoll, L.; Rech, R.; Flôres, S.H.; Nachtigall, S.M.B.; de Oliveira Rios, A. Poly (acid lactic) films with carotenoids extracts: Release study and effect on sunflower oil preservation. Food Chem. 2019, 281, 213–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  194. Qin, Y.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, X.; Liu, J. Development of active and intelligent packaging by incorporating betalains from red pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus) peel into starch/polyvinyl alcohol films. Food Hydrocoll. 2020, 100, 105410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  195. Hu, H.; Yao, X.; Qin, Y.; Yong, H.; Liu, J. Development of multifunctional food packaging by incorporating betalains from vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.) into quaternary ammonium chitosan/fish gelatin blend films. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 159, 675–684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  196. Chavoshizadeh, S.; Pirsa, S.; Mohtarami, F. Conducting/smart color film based on wheat gluten/chlorophyll/polypyrrole nanocomposite. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2020, 24, 100501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  197. Castaneda-Ovando, A.; de Lourdes Pacheco-Hernández, M.; Páez-Hernández, M.E.; Rodríguez, J.A.; Galán-Vidal, C.A. Chemical studies of anthocyanins: A review. Food Chem. 2009, 113, 859–871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  198. Torskangerpoll, K.; Andersen, Ø.M. Colour stability of anthocyanins in aqueous solutions at various pH values. Food Chem. 2005, 89, 427–440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  199. Yong, H.; Liu, J.; Qin, Y.; Bai, R.; Zhang, X.; Liu, J. Antioxidant and pH-sensitive films developed by incorporating purple and black rice extracts into chitosan matrix. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 137, 307–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  200. Zhai, X.; Li, Z.; Shi, J.; Huang, X.; Sun, Z.; Zhang, D.; Zou, X.; Sun, Y.; Zhang, J.; Holmes, M. A colorimetric hydrogen sulfide sensor based on gellan gum-silver nanoparticles bionanocomposite for monitoring of meat spoilage in intelligent packaging. Food Chem. 2019, 290, 135–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  201. Tirtashi, F.E.; Moradi, M.; Tajik, H.; Forough, M.; Ezati, P.; Kuswandi, B. Cellulose/chitosan pH-responsive indicator incorporated with carrot anthocyanins for intelligent food packaging. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 136, 920–926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  202. Qin, Y.; Liu, Y.; Yong, H.; Liu, J.; Zhang, X.; Liu, J. Preparation and characterization of active and intelligent packaging films based on cassava starch and anthocyanins from Lycium ruthenicum Murr. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 134, 80–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  203. Ma, Q.; Liang, T.; Cao, L.; Wang, L. Intelligent poly (vinyl alcohol)-chitosan nanoparticles-mulberry extracts films capable of monitoring pH variations. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018, 108, 576–584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  204. Huang, X.-W.; Zou, X.-B.; Shi, J.-Y.; Guo, Y.; Zhao, J.-W.; Zhang, J.; Hao, L. Determination of pork spoilage by colorimetric gas sensor array based on natural pigments. Food Chem. 2014, 145, 549–554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  205. Jamróz, E.; Kulawik, P.; Guzik, P.; Duda, I. The verification of intelligent properties of furcellaran films with plant extracts on the stored fresh Atlantic mackerel during storage at 2 °C. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 97, 105211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  206. Sohail, M.; Sun, D.-W.; Zhu, Z. Recent developments in intelligent packaging for enhancing food quality and safety. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018, 58, 2650–2662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  207. Saliu, F.; Della Pergola, R. Carbon dioxide colorimetric indicators for food packaging application: Applicability of anthocyanin and poly-lysine mixtures. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2018, 258, 1117–1124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  208. Zhang, Y.; Lim, L.-T. Colorimetric array indicator for NH3 and CO2 detection. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2018, 255, 3216–3226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  209. Herbach, K.M.; Stintzing, F.C.; Carle, R. Betalain stability and degradation—structural and chromatic aspects. J. Food Sci. 2006, 71, R41–R50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  210. Gordon, H.T.; Bauernfeind, J.C.; Furia, T.E. Carotenoids as food colorants. CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1983, 18, 59–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  211. Won, K.; Jang, N.Y.; Jeon, J. A natural component-based oxygen indicator with in-pack activation for intelligent food packaging. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2016, 64, 9675–9679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  212. Puligundla, P.; Jung, J.; Ko, S. Carbon dioxide sensors for intelligent food packaging applications. Food Control 2012, 25, 328–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  213. Koskela, J.; Sarfraz, J.; Ihalainen, P.; Määttänen, A.; Pulkkinen, P.; Tenhu, H.; Nieminen, T.; Kilpelä, A.; Peltonen, J. Monitoring the quality of raw poultry by detecting hydrogen sulfide with printed sensors. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2015, 218, 89–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  214. Huang, X.; Zou, X.; Shi, J.; Li, Z.; Zhao, J. Colorimetric sensor arrays based on chemo-responsive dyes, orfood, odor visualization. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 81, 90–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  215. Chen, H.-z.; Zhang, M.; Bhandari, B.; Guo, Z. Applicability of a colorimetric indicator label for monitoring freshness of fresh-cut green bell pepper. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2018, 140, 85–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  216. Heising, J.K.; Dekker, M.; Bartels, P.V.; Van Boekel, M. Monitoring the quality of perishable foods: Opportunities for intelligent packaging. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2014, 54, 645–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  217. Yousefi, H.; Su, H.-M.; Imani, S.M.; Alkhaldi, K..; M. Filipe, C.D.; Didar, T.F. Intelligent food packaging: A review of smart sensing technologies for monitoring food quality. ACS Sens. 2019, 4, 808–821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  218. López-Gómez, A.; Cerdán-Cartagena, F.; Suardíaz-Muro, J.; Boluda-Aguilar, M.; Hernández-Hernández, M.E.; López-Serrano, M.A.; López-Coronado, J. Radiofrequency identification and surface acoustic wave technologies for developing the food intelligent packaging concept. Food Eng. Rev. 2015, 7, 11–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  219. Mijanur Rahman, A.; Kim, D.; Jang, H.; Yang, J.; Lee, S. Preliminary study on biosensor-type time-temperature integrator for intelligent food packaging. Sensors 2018, 18, 1949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  220. Müller, P.; Schmid, M. Intelligent packaging in the food sector: A brief overview. Foods 2019, 8, 16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  221. Wang, S.; Liu, X.; Yang, M.; Zhang, Y.; Xiang, K.; Tang, R. Review of time temperature indicators as quality monitors in food packaging. Packag. Technol. Sci. 2015, 28, 839–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  222. Zhang, X.; Sun, G.; Xiao, X.; Liu, Y.; Zheng, X. Application of microbial TTIs as smart label for food quality: Response mechanism, application and research trends. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 51, 12–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  223. Taoukis, P.; Labuza, T.P. Applicability of time-temperature indicators as shelf life monitors of food products. J. Food Sci. 1989, 54, 783–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  224. Cevallos-Casals, B.A.; Cisneros-Zevallos, L. Stability of anthocyanin-based aqueous extracts of Andean purple corn and red-fleshed sweet potato compared to synthetic and natural colorants. Food Chem. 2004, 86, 69–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  225. Shaked-Sachray, L.; Weiss, D.; Reuveni, M.; Nissim-Levi, A.; Oren-Shamir, M. Increased anthocyanin accumulation in aster flowers at elevated temperatures due to magnesium treatment. Physiol. Plant. 2002, 114, 559–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  226. Alighourchi, H.; Barzegar, M. Some physicochemical characteristics and degradation kinetic of anthocyanin of reconstituted pomegranate juice during storage. J. Food Eng. 2009, 90, 179–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  227. Patras, A.; Brunton, N.P.; Da Pieve, S.; Butler, F. Impact of high pressure processing on total antioxidant activity, phenolic, ascorbic acid, anthocyanin content and colour of strawberry and blackberry purées. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2009, 10, 308–313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  228. Maciel, V.B.; Yoshida, C.M.; Franco, T.T. Development of a prototype of a colourimetric temperature indicator for monitoring food quality. J. Food Eng. 2012, 111, 21–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  229. Park, Y.W.; Kim, S.M.; Lee, J.Y.; Jang, W. Application of biosensors in smart packaging. Mol. Cell. Toxicol. 2015, 11, 277–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  230. Senturk Parreidt, T.; Müller, K.; Schmid, M. Alginate-based edible films and coatings for food packaging applications. Foods 2018, 7, 170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  231. Peltzer, M.A.; Salvay, A.G.; Delgado, J.F.; Wagner, J.R. Use of edible films and coatings for functional foods developments: A review. Funct. Foods Sources Health Eff. Future Perspect. 2017, 1–26. [Google Scholar]
  232. Ejaz, M.; Arfat, Y.A.; Mulla, M.; Ahmed, J. Zinc oxide nanorods/clove essential oil incorporated Type B gelatin composite films and its applicability for shrimp packaging. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2018, 15, 113–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  233. Mohammadi, H.; Kamkar, A.; Misaghi, A.; Zunabovic-Pichler, M.; Fatehi, S. Nanocomposite films with CMC, okra mucilage, and ZnO nanoparticles: Extending the shelf-life of chicken breast meat. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2019, 21, 100330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  234. Park, H.-Y.; Kim, S.-J.; Kim, K.M.; You, Y.-S.; Kim, S.Y.; Han, J. Development of Antioxidant Packaging Material by Applying Corn-Zein to LLDPE Film in Combination with Phenolic Compounds. J. Food Sci. 2012, 77, E273–E279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  235. Yang, H.-J.; Lee, J.-H.; Won, M.; Song, K.B. Antioxidant activities of distiller dried grains with solubles as protein films containing tea extracts and their application in the packaging of pork meat. Food Chem. 2016, 196, 174–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  236. Sani, M.A.; Ehsani, A.; Hashemi, M. Whey protein isolate/cellulose nanofibre/TiO2 nanoparticle/rosemary essential oil nanocomposite film: Its effect on microbial and sensory quality of lamb meat and growth of common foodborne pathogenic bacteria during refrigeration. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2017, 251, 8–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  237. Pereira de Abreu, D.A.; Paseiro Losada, P.; Maroto, J.; Cruz, J.M. Natural antioxidant active packaging film and its effect on lipid damage in frozen blue shark (Prionace glauca). Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2011, 12, 50–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  238. Souza, C.O.; Silva, L.T.; Silva, J.R.; López, J.A.; Veiga-Santos, P.; Druzian, J.I. Mango and Acerola Pulps as Antioxidant Additives in Cassava Starch Bio-based Film. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 2248–2254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  239. Kaewklin, P.; Siripatrawan, U.; Suwanagul, A.; Lee, Y.S. Active packaging from chitosan-titanium dioxide nanocomposite film for prolonging storage life of tomato fruit. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018, 112, 523–529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  240. Rodríguez, G.M.; Sibaja, J.C.; Espitia, P.J.; Otoni, C.G. Antioxidant active packaging based on papaya edible films incorporated with Moringa oleifera and ascorbic acid for food preservation. Food Hydrocoll. 2020, 103, 105630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  241. Nguyen, T.T.; Dao, U.T.T.; Bui, Q.P.T.; Bach, G.L.; Thuc, C.H.; Thuc, H.H. Enhanced antimicrobial activities and physiochemical properties of edible film based on chitosan incorporated with Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. leaf extract. Prog. Org. Coat. 2020, 140, 105487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  242. de Oliveira, T.M.; de Fátima Ferreira Soares, N.; Pereira, R.M.; de Freitas Fraga, K. Development and evaluation of antimicrobial natamycin-incorporated film in gorgonzola cheese conservation. Packag. Technol. Sci. Int. J. 2007, 20, 147–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  243. Kurnianto, M.; Poerwanto, B.; Wahyono, A.; Apriliyanti, M.; Lestari, I. Monitoring of banana deteriorations using intelligent-packaging containing brazilien extract (Caesalpina sappan L.). In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK; Chicago, IL, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  244. Liu, B.; Xu, H.; Zhao, H.; Liu, W.; Zhao, L.; Li, Y. Preparation and characterization of intelligent starch/PVA films for simultaneous colorimetric indication and antimicrobial activity for food packaging applications. Carbohydr. Polym. 2017, 157, 842–849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  245. Tiekstra, S.; Dopico-Parada, A.; Koivula, H.; Lahti, J.; Buntinx, M. Holistic Approach to a Successful Market Implementation of Active and Intelligent Food Packaging. Foods 2021, 10, 465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  246. Ribeiro Sanches, M.A.; Camelo-Silva, C.; da Silva Carvalho, C.; Rafael de Mello, J.; Barroso, N.G.; Lopes da Silva Barros, E.; Silva, P.P.; Pertuzatti, P.B. Active packaging with starch, red cabbage extract and sweet whey: Characterization and application in meat. LWT 2021, 135, 110275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  247. Liu, J.; Wang, H.; Guo, M.; Li, L.; Chen, M.; Jiang, S.; Li, X.; Jiang, S. Extract from Lycium ruthenicum Murr. Incorporating κ-carrageenan colorimetric film with a wide pH–sensing range for food freshness monitoring. Food Hydrocoll. 2019, 94, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  248. Singh, S.; Gaikwad, K.K.; Lee, M.; Lee, Y.S. Temperature sensitive smart packaging for monitoring the shelf life of fresh beef. J. Food Eng. 2018, 234, 41–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  249. Bilal, M.; Zhao, Y.; Iqbal, H.M. Development and characterization of essential oils incorporated chitosan-based cues with antibacterial and antifungal potentialities. J. Radiat. Res. Appl. Sci. 2020, 13, 174–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  250. Wu, J.; Sun, X.; Guo, X.; Ge, S.; Zhang, Q. Physicochemical properties, antimicrobial activity and oil release of fish gelatin films incorporated with cinnamon essential oil. Aquac. Fish. 2017, 2, 185–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  251. Karaman, A.D.; Özer, B.; Pascall, M.A.; Alvarez, V. Recent Advances in Dairy Packaging. Food Rev. Int. 2015, 31, 295–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  252. Conte, A.; Scrocco, C.; Sinigaglia, M.; Del Nobile, M.A. Innovative Active Packaging Systems to Prolong the Shelf Life of Mozzarella Cheese. J. Dairy Sci. 2007, 90, 2126–2131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  253. Kuorwel, K.K.; Bigger, S.W.; Cran, M.J.; Sonneveld, K.; Miltz, J. The antimicrobial activity of carvacrol and linalool against S. aureus for the packaging of Cheddar cheese. In Proceedings of the 17th IAPRI World Conference of Packaging, Tianjin, China, 12–15 October 2010; Binglin, L.U., Ed.; Scientific Research Publishing: Irvine, CA, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  254. da Rosa, C.G.; Sganzerla, W.G.; Maciel, M.V.d.O.B.; de Melo, A.P.Z.; da Rosa Almeida, A.; Nunes, M.R.; Bertoldi, F.C.; Barreto, P.L.M. Development of poly (ethylene oxide) bioactive nanocomposite films functionalized with zein nanoparticles. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2020, 586, 124268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  255. Ramesh, M.; Narendra, G.; Sasikanth, S. A review on biodegradable packaging materials in extending the shelf life and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables. In Waste Management as Economic Industry towards Circular Economy; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; pp. 59–65. [Google Scholar]
  256. Pavinatto, A.; de Almeida Mattos, A.V.; Malpass, A.C.G.; Okura, M.H.; Balogh, D.T.; Sanfelice, R.C. Coating with chitosan-based edible films for mechanical/biological protection of strawberries. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 151, 1004–1011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  257. Torres-León, C.; Vicente, A.A.; Flores-López, M.L.; Rojas, R.; Serna-Cock, L.; Alvarez-Pérez, O.B.; Aguilar, C.N. Edible films and coatings based on mango (var. Ataulfo) by-products to improve gas transfer rate of peach. LWT 2018, 97, 624–631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  258. Taqi, A.; Mutihac, L.; Stamatin, I. Physical and Barrier Properties of Apple Pectin/Cassava Starch Composite Films Incorporating Laurus nobilis L. Oil and Oleic Acid. J. Food Process. Preserv. 2014, 38, 1982–1993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  259. Sganzerla, W.G.; Pereira Ribeiro, C.P.; Uliana, N.R.; Cassetari Rodrigues, M.B.; da Rosa, C.G.; Ferrareze, J.P.; Veeck, A.P.d.L.; Nunes, M.R. Bioactive and pH-sensitive films based on carboxymethyl cellulose and blackberry (Morus nigra L.) anthocyanin-rich extract: A perspective coating material to improve the shelf life of cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. var. cerasiforme). Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 2021, 33, 101989. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  260. Buendía-Moreno, L.; Soto-Jover, S.; Ros-Chumillas, M.; Antolinos, V.; Navarro-Segura, L.; Sánchez-Martínez, M.J.; Martínez-Hernández, G.B.; López-Gómez, A. Innovative cardboard active packaging with a coating including encapsulated essential oils to extend cherry tomato shelf life. LWT 2019, 116, 108584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  261. Da Rocha Neto, A.C.; Beaudry, R.; Maraschin, M.; Di Piero, R.M.; Almenar, E. Double-bottom antimicrobial packaging for apple shelf-life extension. Food Chem. 2019, 279, 379–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g001 550
Figure 1. Trends in the number of scientific articles published on biopolymer-based versus synthetic plastic-based packaging materials (upper graph) and on smart packaging versus active packaging materials (lower graph). The search was carried out using Scopus and Web of Science in March 2021.
Figure 1. Trends in the number of scientific articles published on biopolymer-based versus synthetic plastic-based packaging materials (upper graph) and on smart packaging versus active packaging materials (lower graph). The search was carried out using Scopus and Web of Science in March 2021.
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g001
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g002 550
Figure 2. Comparison of the properties of biopolymer-based and synthetic plastic-based packaging materials.
Figure 2. Comparison of the properties of biopolymer-based and synthetic plastic-based packaging materials.
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g002
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g003 550
Figure 3. Characteristics, classification, and application of smart and active packaging materials.
Figure 3. Characteristics, classification, and application of smart and active packaging materials.
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g003
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g004 550
Figure 4. Solution color variations (A), and structural transformation of saffron petal anthocyanins in various buffer solutions (B), Reprinted from [42], copyright 2021, with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 4. Solution color variations (A), and structural transformation of saffron petal anthocyanins in various buffer solutions (B), Reprinted from [42], copyright 2021, with permission from Elsevier.
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g004
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g005 550
Figure 5. Monitoring and tracking the freshness and spoilage of fish fillet using smart halochromic film, Reprinted from [28], copyright 2021, with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 5. Monitoring and tracking the freshness and spoilage of fish fillet using smart halochromic film, Reprinted from [28], copyright 2021, with permission from Elsevier.
Nanomaterials 11 01331 g005
Table
Table 1. Main characteristics of active and smart biodegradable packaging films.
Table 1. Main characteristics of active and smart biodegradable packaging films.
Polymer(s)/Biopolymer(s)Active Material(s)Smart/or Active PackagingCharacteristics of Packaging FilmsThermalRef.
PhysicalMechanicalBarrierOptical
WSMCWCAThTSEBYMWVPOPT600/OpColor
Chitosan/poly (vinyl alcohol)Boswellic acidActive+−+±+−+−−−/+−−[32]
GelatinGrapefruit seed extract/TiO2 NPsActiveNN−+−+−+N−/++−[33]
Poly(lactide)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)Ferulic acidActiveNN−++−+NN−/+N−[34]
Poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene-succinate-co-adipate) (PLA/PBSA)Thymol EOsActive−−N+−+−−−−N−[35]
StarchYerba mate extractActive−−N+++−−−NNN[36]
Poly(vinyl alcohol)/clayTea polyphenolsActive−−±±+−N−−−/++N[37]
Chitosan/gallic-acidZnO NPsActive−−N+−+N−−−/+NN[38]
Corn starch/chitosanGrapefruit seed extractActive++N+−+−−−NN−[39]
GelatinSilver-Kaolin NPsActive−−+++−+−N−/+NN[40]
Sodium caseinate/guar gum TiO2 NPs/cumin EOsActive−N−++±+±N−/+N−[41]
Methyl cellulose/chitosan nanofibers Saffron petal anthocyaninsSmart−−N+++−−N−+−[42]
Cassava starch Blueberry residueSmart+++±−+−±+−/++−[43]
ChitosanBlack soybean seed coat extractSmart+−N+++N−N++−[44]
GelatinRed cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) extractsSmart+−N+++−+N+−N[45]
Chitosan Purple-fleshed sweet potato extractSmart+−N+−−N+N−−−[46]
Agar Arnebia euchroma root extractsSmart−−+−++++N−+N[47]
GelatinCurcuminSmart±±N+−+−−N−/++N[48]
k-carrageenan Curcumin SmartNNN++−+−−−++[49]
ChitosanBlueberry and blackberry pomace extractsSmart±−N±±−+−±+±N[19]
ChitosanAlizarinSmartNN++−++−−+−+[50]
WS: water solubility, MC: moisture content, MA: moisture absorption, WCA: water contact angle, Th: thickness, TS: tensile strength, EB: elongation at break, YM: Young modulus, WVP: water vapor permeability, OP: oxygen permeability, T600: transparency, Op: opacity; NPs: nanoparticles, EOs: essential oils. N: Not analyzed. (±): variable, (+): increase, (−): decrease.
Table
Table 2. Examples of the application of active packaging materials fabricated using the casting method in the food industry.
Table 2. Examples of the application of active packaging materials fabricated using the casting method in the food industry.
Packaging Film MatrixActive AdditivesAdditive FunctionsRemarksRef.
ChitosanPine needle extract (Cedrus deodara)Antioxidant/physical/oxygen/water vapor permeability/color/microstructuresFilms showed high antioxidant activity and protected oxygen-sensitive foods.[148]
ChitosanFlavanols (kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin)Antimicrobial/Antioxidant/water vapor permeability/oxygen permeability/UV–vis light transmittancePrevention of microbial growth[149]
Poly(lactic acid)/
Poly(ε-caprolactone)		EOs (thymol, carvacrol)AntioxidantA PLA film impregnated with thymol and carvacrol had the best antioxidant activity.[150]
ChitosanPoly (vinyl alcohol)Antimicrobial/ultraviolet blocking/morphology/mechanical properties/water solubility/hydrophilicityFilms exhibited antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans.[32]
Polylactic acidEOs (thymol, kesum, curry)Antimicrobial/Morphology/functional chemistry/thermal stability/permeabilityFilms inhibited bacterial growth and extended shelf life of meats, fruits, and vegetable products[151]
Sodium lactate/
whey protein isolate		ɛ-Poly lysineMechanical behavior/AntimicrobialFilms extended shelf-life by reduction of total flora and inhibiting lactic acid bacteria growth[152]
Chitosan/
Carboxymethyl cellulose		ZnO nanoparticlesAntimicrobial/Physicochemical and physical propertiesFilms had good activity against gram-positive bacteria and fungi[153]
Chitosanethyl-Nα-dodecanoyl-LarginateAntimicrobialFilms exhibited antibacterial activity[154]
Poly(ε-caprolactone)Oxidized regenerated celluloseAntimicrobialFilms reduced total colony-forming units on salami during storage.[155]
LDPE/LLDPEAg/TiO2 nanoparticlesAntimicrobialNanoparticle addition improved antimildew and physicochemical properties of films.[156]
Polyvinyl chlorideAg nanoparticlesAntimicrobial/AntioxidantFilms inhibited bacterial growth, reduced oxidation, and extended shelf life[157]
Sodium alginateZnO nanoparticlesAntimicrobialFilms reduced initial bacterial count[158]
Whey protein isolateLactoferrin, Lysozyme, and the LactoperoxidaseAntimicrobialFilms extended shelf-life by inhibiting bacterial growth[159]
Table
Table 3. Examples of studies on the utilization of smart packaging materials fabricated by the solution casting method in the food industry.
Table 3. Examples of studies on the utilization of smart packaging materials fabricated by the solution casting method in the food industry.
Packaging Film MatrixColorant Agent/SourceTriggerRemarksRef.
Chitosan/
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)		Anthocyanin/Red cabbagepH indicatorAdditives increased tensile strength of film and provided color indication of pork spoilage during storage.[162]
Chitosan/Starch/
Polyvinyl alcohol		Anthocyanin/Roselle calyxpH indicatorColor changes in film provided indication of spoilage in pork.[163]
Hydroxy propyl methylcellulose/
κ-carrageenan		Anthocyanin/Prunus maackii juicepH indicatorColor changes in film provided indication of spoilage.[164]
Agar/Tapioca starchAnthocyanin/Red cabbagepH indicatorColor changes in film provided indication of spoilage in sausage.[165]
Cassava starch Anthocyanin/Blueberry residuepH indicatorColor changes in film provided indication of spoilage.[166]
Methylcellulose/
Chitosan nanofiber		Anthocyanin/Barberry (BA)pH indicatorFilms underwent color changes when exposed to different pH conditions.[79]
Poly vinyl pyrrolidone/CMC/Bacterial cellulose/Guar gumAnthocyanin/Red cabbagepH indicatorAnthocyanin addition improved physicochemical properties of films and were suitable as color sensors of pH changes.[167]
Gelatin/Gellan gumAnthocyanins/Red radishpH indicatorFilms underwent color changes when exposed to different pH conditions.[168]
Chitosan/PectinAnthocyanin Hibiscus rosa-sinensispH indicatorColor changes in film provided indication of spoilage during storage.[169]
Cellulose acetate nanofibers AlizarinpH indicatorColor changes in film provided indication of spoilage.[170]
Bacterial cellulose nanofiber Anthocyanin/Black carrotpH indicatorFilms underwent color changes when exposed to different pH conditions.[171]
Glucomannan/Polyvinyl alcoholBetacyaninpH indicatorFilms underwent color changes when exposed to different pH conditions.[172]
Methylcellulose/
Chitin nanofiber		Anthocyanins/Red barberrypH indicatorColor changes in film provided indication of spoilage in fish and meat samples during storage.[28]
Artemisia sphaerocephala Krasch. gum (ASKG)/Carboxymethyl cellulose sodiumAnthocyanins/Red cabbagepH/Gas/volatile compounds indicator (NH3)Color changes in film in response to pH changes or NH3 production provided indication of spoilage [132]
Polylactide/Poly hydroxybutyrateβ-carotene,
Chlorophyll,
Curcumin, Lutein		Temperature/LightColor changes in film in response to changes in temperature or light exposure[173]
Starch/Polyvinyl alcoholAnthocyanins/Roselle Temperature/pH indicatorColor changes in film in response to changes in pH or light exposure[174]
AgarArnebia
euchroma root		Temperature/FreshnessFilm changed color when fish spoiled.[47]
Chitosan/Polyvinyl alcoholAnthocyanins/
Red cabbage		Time/TemperatureThe colorimetric film on pasteurized milk shows visual color changes to consumers.[118]
ChitosanChlorophyllTemperatureFilm changed color when exposed to elevated temperatures (>50 °C).
[175]
CelluloseAnthocyanin/Ruellia Simplex flowersTime/TemperatureFilm changed color when exposed to different temperatures: pink/blue (at 13 °C); purplish/blue (at 25 °C); yellow/gray (at 40 °C)
[176]
Bacterial
cellulose nanofibers		Anthocyanin/Black carrotGas/volatile ammonia compounds Film changed color in response to gas production [171]
Tara gum/Polyvinyl alcoholCurcuminGas/volatile compounds (TVBN, NH3)Film changed color in response to gas production[177]
Table
Table 4. Application of smart or active packaging materials fabricated by solution casting method to real food products tested at room or refrigerator temperature.
Table 4. Application of smart or active packaging materials fabricated by solution casting method to real food products tested at room or refrigerator temperature.
Food modelPolymersActive materialsSmart or Active FunctionRemarksRef.
ShrimpBovine skin
gelatin		ZnO nanoparticles/clove essential oilActiveAntibacterialComposite films showed antibacterial activity against Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Typhimurium inoculated in shrimp during refrigerated storage.[232]
Chicken breast meatCarboxymethyl celluloseOkra mucilage/
ZnO
nanoparticles		ActiveAntimicrobial/AntioxidantIncorporating okra mucilage and ZnO nanoparticles in films reduced microbial growth, oxidation, and gas production.[233]
Vacuum-packed beef pattiesCorn-zein-laminated linear
LDPE film		Thymol, carvacrol, and eugenol
essential oil		ActiveAntioxidantIncorporating essential oils in films reduced lipid oxidation and color changes in fresh ground beef patties during storage.[234]
Pork meatDistiller dried grains with soluble proteinGreen tea, oolong tea, and black tea extractsActiveAntioxidantIncorporating tea extracts increased the antioxidant activity of films.[235]
Lamb meatWhey protein isolate/cellulose nanofibre/TiO2 nanoparticle/rosemary essential oilActiveAntimicrobial/AntioxidantNanocomposite films reduced total viable count, Pseudomonas spp, Enterobacteriaceae, Lactic acid bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Escherichia coli counts. Higher inhibition observed for Gram-positive than Gram-negative bacteria[236]
Frozen blue shark (Prionace glauca)low density polyethylene (LDPE)Barley husk extractsActiveAntioxidantHydrolytic activity and lipid oxidation are sensitive to antioxidant content and storage time.[237]
Palm oilCassava starchMango and acerola pulpActiveAntioxidantAntioxidants were effective additives for protecting the packaged product.[238]
StrawberryClay/PE polymerCarvacrol and thymol essential oilsActiveAntifungalIncorporating essential oils in films increased antifungal activity against Botrytis.[128]
Tomato ChitosanTiO2 nanoparticlesActiveGas scavengerNanocomposite films delayed tomato ripening.[239]
PearPapaya (Carica papaya L.) pureeAscorbic acid and Moringa leaf extractActiveAntioxidantFilms increased shelf-life and improved sensory properties of pears.[240]
BananaChitosanSonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. leaf extractActiveAntimicrobialIncorporating a leaf extract into the films increase the shelf-life of bananas [241]
Gorgonzola cheeseCellulose polymeric films and laminated filmsNatamycinActiveAntifungalIncorporating the antifungal agent into film led to increased inhibition of P. roqueforti[242]
FishChitin nanofiber/methylcelluloseRed barberry anthocyanins (RBAs)Active/SmartAntimicrobial/Antioxidant/
Colorimetric		Films exhibited good antioxidant and antimicrobial activity, as well as ability to detect quality changes.[28]
ChickenChitosan/corn starchHibiscus rosa-sinensis anthocyaninSmartColorimetricFilms exhibited good optical and morphological properties and are sensitive to pH changes.[169]
SausageAgar/Tapioca starchRed cabbage anthocyaninSmartColorimetricAnthocyanins change color in response to quality changes in sausage during storage.[165]
ChickenCassava starch Blueberry residue anthocyaninSmartColorimetricAnthocyanins change color in response to pH (quality) changes in chicken during storage.[166]
Pork/FishChitosanBauhinia blakeana Dunn. flower anthocyaninSmartColorimetricAnthocyanins change color in response to quality changes in pork and fish during storage.[204]
Lamb meat Chitosan nanofibers/methylcelluloseSaffron petal anthocyaninsActive/SmartAntimicrobial/Antioxidant/ColorimetricChitosan provides antimicrobial activity while anthocyanins provide antioxidant activity and change color in response to changes in lamb quality during storage. [42]
Red meat Methylcellulose/chitosan nanofiberBarberry anthocyaninActive/SmartAntioxidant/ColorimetricChitosan provides antimicrobial activity while anthocyanins change color in response to changes in meat quality during storage.[79]
BananaPVA/glucomannanSappan Wood extractsSmartAntioxidant The wood extract changed color in response to quality changes in banana during storage.[243]
Milk Starch/Polyvinyl alcoholPurple sweet potato anthocyaninSmartAntimicrobial/ColorimetricThe anthocyanins gave a color change in response to alterations in milk quality. The films also exhibited antimicrobial activity against Aspergillus niger, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus.[244]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Sani, M.A.; Azizi-Lalabadi, M.; Tavassoli, M.; Mohammadi, K.; McClements, D.J. Recent Advances in the Development of Smart and Active Biodegradable Packaging Materials. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 1331. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11051331

AMA Style

Sani MA, Azizi-Lalabadi M, Tavassoli M, Mohammadi K, McClements DJ. Recent Advances in the Development of Smart and Active Biodegradable Packaging Materials. Nanomaterials. 2021; 11(5):1331. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11051331

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sani, Mahmood Alizadeh, Maryam Azizi-Lalabadi, Milad Tavassoli, Keyhan Mohammadi, and David Julian McClements. 2021. "Recent Advances in the Development of Smart and Active Biodegradable Packaging Materials" Nanomaterials 11, no. 5: 1331. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11051331

APA Style

Sani, M. A., Azizi-Lalabadi, M., Tavassoli, M., Mohammadi, K., & McClements, D. J. (2021). Recent Advances in the Development of Smart and Active Biodegradable Packaging Materials. Nanomaterials, 11(5), 1331. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11051331

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop