Robotics

22 pages, 602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Dara MacConville, Marie Farrell, Matt Luckcuck and Rosemary Monahan

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020062 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 2447

Software verification is an important approach to establishing the reliability of critical systems. One important area of application is in the field of robotics, as robots take on more tasks in both day-to-day areas and highly specialised domains. Our particular interest is in [...] Read more.

Software verification is an important approach to establishing the reliability of critical systems. One important area of application is in the field of robotics, as robots take on more tasks in both day-to-day areas and highly specialised domains. Our particular interest is in checking the plans that robots are expected to follow to detect errors that would lead to unreliable behaviour. Python is a popular programming language in the robotics domain through the use of the Robot Operating System (ROS) and various other libraries. Python’s Turtle package provides a mobile agent, which we formally model here using Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP). Our interactive toolchain CSP2Turtle with CSP models and Python components enables plans for the turtle agent to be verified using the FDR model-checker before being executed in Python. This means that certain classes of errors can be avoided, providing a starting point for more detailed verification of Turtle programs and more complex robotic systems. We illustrate our approach with examples of robot navigation and obstacle avoidance in a 2D grid-world. We evaluate our approach and discuss future work, including how our approach could be scaled to larger systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agents and Robots for Reliable Engineered Autonomy 2023)

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22 pages, 3375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Incremental Inverse Reinforcement Learning Approach for Motion Planning with Separated Path and Velocity Preferences

by Armin Avaei, Linda van der Spaa, Luka Peternel and Jens Kober

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020061 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2556

Abstract

Humans often demonstrate diverse behaviors due to their personal preferences, for instance, related to their individual execution style or personal margin for safety. In this paper, we consider the problem of integrating both path and velocity preferences into trajectory planning for robotic manipulators. [...] Read more.

Humans often demonstrate diverse behaviors due to their personal preferences, for instance, related to their individual execution style or personal margin for safety. In this paper, we consider the problem of integrating both path and velocity preferences into trajectory planning for robotic manipulators. We first learn reward functions that represent the user path and velocity preferences from kinesthetic demonstration. We then optimize the trajectory in two steps, first the path and then the velocity, to produce trajectories that adhere to both task requirements and user preferences. We design a set of parameterized features that capture the fundamental preferences in a pick-and-place type of object transportation task, both in the shape and timing of the motion. We demonstrate that our method is capable of generalizing such preferences to new scenarios. We implement our algorithm on a Franka Emika 7-DoF robot arm and validate the functionality and flexibility of our approach in a user study. The results show that non-expert users are able to teach the robot their preferences with just a few iterations of feedback. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Intelligent Systems and Robotics)

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22 pages, 2155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

UAV Power Line Tracking Control Based on a Type-2 Fuzzy-PID Approach

by Guilherme A. N. Pussente, Eduardo P. de Aguiar, Andre L. M. Marcato and Milena F. Pinto

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020060 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2500

Abstract

A challenge for inspecting transmission power lines with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) is to precisely determine their position and orientation, considering that the geo-location of these elements via GPS often needs to be more consistent. Therefore, a viable alternative is to use visual [...] Read more.

A challenge for inspecting transmission power lines with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) is to precisely determine their position and orientation, considering that the geo-location of these elements via GPS often needs to be more consistent. Therefore, a viable alternative is to use visual information from cameras attached to the central part of the UAV, enabling a control technique that allows the lines to be positioned at the center of the image. Therefore, this work proposes a PID (proportional–integral–derivative) controller tuned through interval type-2 fuzzy logic (IT2_PID) for the transmission line follower problem. The PID gains are selected online as the position and orientation errors and their respective derivatives change. The methodology was built in Python with the Robot Operating System (ROS) interface. The key point of the proposed methodology is its easy reproducibility, since the designed control loop does not require the mathematical model of the UAV. The tests were performed using the Gazebo simulator. The outcomes demonstrated that the proposed type-2 fuzzy variant displayed lower error values for both stabilization tests (keeping the UAV centered and oriented with the lines) and the following step in which the trajectory is time-variant, compared to the analogous T1_PID control and a classical PID controller tuned by the Zigler–Nichols method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAV Systems and Swarm Robotics)

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19 pages, 6741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tunable Adhesion of Shape Memory Polymer Dry Adhesive Soft Robotic Gripper via Stiffness Control

by ChangHee Son, Subin Jeong, Sangyeop Lee, Placid M. Ferreira and Seok Kim

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020059 - 17 Apr 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3494

Abstract

A shape memory polymer (SMP) has been intensively researched in terms of its exceptional reversible dry adhesive characteristics and related smart adhesive applications over the last decade. However, its unique adhesive properties have rarely been taken into account for other potential applications, such [...] Read more.

A shape memory polymer (SMP) has been intensively researched in terms of its exceptional reversible dry adhesive characteristics and related smart adhesive applications over the last decade. However, its unique adhesive properties have rarely been taken into account for other potential applications, such as robotic pick-and-place, which might otherwise improve robotic manipulation and contribute to the related fields. This work explores the use of an SMP to design an adhesive gripper that picks and places a target solid object employing the reversible dry adhesion of an SMP. The numerical and experimental results reveal that an ideal compositional and topological SMP adhesive design can significantly improve its adhesion strength and reversibility, leading to a strong grip force and a minimal release force. Next, a radially averaged power spectrum density (RAPSD) analysis proves that active heating and cooling with a thermoelectric Peltier module (TEC) substantially enhances the conformal adhesive contact of an SMP. Based on these findings, an adhesive gripper is designed, fabricated, and tested. Remarkably, the SMP adhesive gripper interacts not only with flat and smooth dry surfaces, but also moderately rough and even wet surfaces for pick-and-place, showing high adhesion strength (>2 standard atmospheres) which is comparable to or exceeds those of other single-surface contact grippers, such as vacuum, electromagnetic, electroadhesion, and gecko grippers. Lastly, the versatility and utility of the SMP adhesive gripper are highlighted through diverse pick-and-place demonstrations. Associated studies on physical mechanisms, SMP adhesive mechanics, and thermal conditions are also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soft Robotics)

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17 pages, 5039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Serious Games for the Rehabilitation of the Human Vertebral Spine for Home Care

by Rogério Sales Gonçalves, Rodrigo Alves Prado, Guênia Mara Vieira Ladeira and Andréa Licre Pessina Gasparini

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020058 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2499

Abstract

With the occurrence of pandemics, such as COVID-19, which lead to social isolation, there is a need for home rehabilitation procedures without the direct supervision of health professionals. The great difficulty of treatment at home is the cost of the conventional equipment and [...] Read more.

With the occurrence of pandemics, such as COVID-19, which lead to social isolation, there is a need for home rehabilitation procedures without the direct supervision of health professionals. The great difficulty of treatment at home is the cost of the conventional equipment and the need for specialized labor to operate it. Thus, this paper aimed to develop serious games to assist health professionals in the physiotherapy of patients with spinal pain for clinical and home applications. Serious games integrate serious aspects such as teaching, rehabilitation, and information with the playful and interactive elements of video games. Despite the positive indication and benefits of physiotherapy for cases of chronic spinal pain, the long treatment time, social isolation due to pandemics, and lack of motivation to use traditional methods are some of the main causes of therapeutic failure. Using Unity 3D (version 2019.4.24f1) software and a personal computer with a webcam, we developed aesthetically pleasing, smooth, and attractive games, while maintaining the essence of seriousness that is required for rehabilitation. The serious games, controlled using OpenPose (version v1.0.0alpha-1.5.0) software, were tested with a healthy volunteer. The findings demonstrated that the proposed games can be used as a playful tool to motivate patients during physiotherapy and to reduce cases of treatment abandonment, including at home. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Service Robotics against COVID-2019 Pandemic)

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13 pages, 9391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tractor-Robot Cooperation: A Heterogeneous Leader-Follower Approach

by El Houssein Chouaib Harik

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020057 - 6 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2400

Abstract

In this paper, we investigated the idea of including mobile robots as complementary machinery to tractors in an agricultural context. The main idea is not to replace the human farmer, but to augment his/her capabilities by deploying mobile robots as assistants in field [...] Read more.

In this paper, we investigated the idea of including mobile robots as complementary machinery to tractors in an agricultural context. The main idea is not to replace the human farmer, but to augment his/her capabilities by deploying mobile robots as assistants in field operations. The scheme is based on a leader–follower approach. The manned tractor is used as a leader, which will be taken as a reference point for a follower. The follower then takes the position of the leader as a target, and follows it in an autonomous manner. This will allow the farmer to multiply the working width by the number of mobile robots deployed during field operations. In this paper, we present a detailed description of the system, the theoretical aspect that allows the robot to autonomously follow the tractor, in addition to the different experimental steps that allowed us to test the system in the field to assess the robustness of the proposed scheme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics and AI for Precision Agriculture)

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19 pages, 1855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simplified Kinematics and Kinetics Formulation for Prismatic Tensegrity Robots: Simulation and Experiments

by Azamat Yeshmukhametov and Koichi Koganezawa

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020056 - 3 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2564

Abstract

Tensegrity robots offer several advantageous features, such as being hyper-redundant, lightweight, shock-resistant, and incorporating wire-driven structures. Despite these benefits, tensegrity structures are also recognized for their complexity, which presents a challenge when addressing the kinematics and dynamics of tensegrity robots. Therefore, this research [...] Read more.

Tensegrity robots offer several advantageous features, such as being hyper-redundant, lightweight, shock-resistant, and incorporating wire-driven structures. Despite these benefits, tensegrity structures are also recognized for their complexity, which presents a challenge when addressing the kinematics and dynamics of tensegrity robots. Therefore, this research paper proposes a new kinematic/kinetic formulation for tensegrity structures that differs from the classical matrix differential equation framework. The main contribution of this research paper is a new formulation, based on vector differential equations, which can be advantageous when it is convenient to use a smaller number of state variables. The limitation of the proposed kinematics and kinetic formulation is that it is only applicable for tensegrity robots with prismatic structures. Moreover, this research paper presents experimentally validated results of the proposed mathematical formulation for a six-bar tensegrity robot. Furthermore, this paper offers an empirical explanation of the calibration features required for successful experiments with tensegrity robots. Full article

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13 pages, 4197 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heart Rate as a Predictor of Challenging Behaviours among Children with Autism from Wearable Sensors in Social Robot Interactions

by Ahmad Qadeib Alban, Ahmad Yaser Alhaddad, Abdulaziz Al-Ali, Wing-Chee So, Olcay Connor, Malek Ayesh, Uvais Ahmed Qidwai and John-John Cabibihan

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020055 - 1 Apr 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3312

Abstract

Children with autism face challenges in various skills (e.g., communication and social) and they exhibit challenging behaviours. These challenging behaviours represent a challenge to their families, therapists, and caregivers, especially during therapy sessions. In this study, we have investigated several machine learning techniques [...] Read more.

Children with autism face challenges in various skills (e.g., communication and social) and they exhibit challenging behaviours. These challenging behaviours represent a challenge to their families, therapists, and caregivers, especially during therapy sessions. In this study, we have investigated several machine learning techniques and data modalities acquired using wearable sensors from children with autism during their interactions with social robots and toys in their potential to detect challenging behaviours. Each child wore a wearable device that collected data. Video annotations of the sessions were used to identify the occurrence of challenging behaviours. Extracted time features (i.e., mean, standard deviation, min, and max) in conjunction with four machine learning techniques were considered to detect challenging behaviors. The heart rate variability (HRV) changes have also been investigated in this study. The XGBoost algorithm has achieved the best performance (i.e., an accuracy of 99%). Additionally, physiological features outperformed the kinetic ones, with the heart rate being the main contributing feature in the prediction performance. One HRV parameter (i.e., RMSSD) was found to correlate with the occurrence of challenging behaviours. This work highlights the importance of developing the tools and methods to detect challenging behaviors among children with autism during aided sessions with social robots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Socially Intelligent Robots)

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19 pages, 4561 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Evaluation of an Intuitive Haptic Teleoperation Control System for 6-DoF Industrial Manipulators

by Ivo Dekker, Karel Kellens and Eric Demeester

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020054 - 1 Apr 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3314

Abstract

Industrial robots are capable of performing automated tasks repeatedly, reliably and accurately. However, in some scenarios, human-in-the-loop control is required. In this case, having an intuitive system for moving the robot within the working environment is crucial. Additionally, the operator should be aided [...] Read more.

Industrial robots are capable of performing automated tasks repeatedly, reliably and accurately. However, in some scenarios, human-in-the-loop control is required. In this case, having an intuitive system for moving the robot within the working environment is crucial. Additionally, the operator should be aided by sensory feedback to obtain a user-friendly robot control system. Haptic feedback is one way of achieving such a system. This paper designs and assesses an intuitive teleoperation system for controlling an industrial 6-DoF robotic manipulator using a Geomagic Touch haptic interface. The system utilises both virtual environment-induced and physical sensor-induced haptic feedback to provide the user with both a higher amount of environmental awareness and additional safety while manoeuvering the robot within its working area. Different tests show that the system is capable of fully stopping the manipulator without colliding with the environment, and preventing it from entering singularity states with Cartesian end effector velocities of up to 0.25 m/s. Additionally, an operator is capable of executing low-tolerance end effector positioning tasks (∼0.5 mm) with high-frequency control of the robot (∼100 Hz). Fourteen inexperienced volunteers were asked to perform a typical object removal and writing task to gauge the intuitiveness of the system. It was found that when repeating the same test for a second time, the participants performed 22.2% faster on average. The results for the second attempt also became significantly more consistent between participants, as the inter quartile range dropped by 82.7% (from 52 s on the first attempt to 9 s on the second). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immersive Teleoperation and AI)

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24 pages, 14295 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Survey on Open-Source Simulation Platforms for Multi-Copter UAV Swarms

by Ziming Chen, Jinjin Yan, Bing Ma, Kegong Shi, Qiang Yu and Weijie Yuan

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020053 - 1 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 7000

Abstract

Simulation platforms are critical and indispensable tools for application developments of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) because the UAVs are generally costly, have certain requirements for the test environment, and need professional licensed operators. Thus, developers prefer (or have) to test their applications on [...] Read more.

Simulation platforms are critical and indispensable tools for application developments of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) because the UAVs are generally costly, have certain requirements for the test environment, and need professional licensed operators. Thus, developers prefer (or have) to test their applications on simulation platforms before implementing them on real machines. In the past decades, a considerable number of simulation platforms for robots have been developed, which brings convenience to developers, but also makes them hard to choose a proper one as they are not always familiar with all the features of platforms. To alleviate this dilemma, this paper provides a survey of open-source simulation platforms and employs the simulation of a multi-copter UAV swarm as an example. The survey covers seven widely used simulators, including Webots, Gazebo, CoppeliaSim, ARGoS, MRDS, MORSE, and USARSim. The paper outlines the requirements for multi-copter UAV swarms and shows how to select an appropriate platform. Additionally, the paper presents a case study of a UAV swarm based on Webots. This research will be beneficial to researchers, developers, educators, and engineers who seek suitable simulation platforms for application development, (not only multi-copter UAV swarms but also other types of robots), which further helps them to save expenses for testing, and speed up development progress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The State of the Art of Swarm Robotics)

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15 pages, 3917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of a Novel Haptic Joystick for the Teleoperation of Continuum-Mechanism-Based Medical Robots

by Yiping Xie, Xilong Hou and Shuangyi Wang

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020052 - 29 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3289

Abstract

Continuum robots are increasingly used in medical applications and the master–slave-based architectures are still the most important mode of operation in human–machine interaction. However, the existing master control devices are not fully suitable for either the mechanical mechanism or the control method. This [...] Read more.

Continuum robots are increasingly used in medical applications and the master–slave-based architectures are still the most important mode of operation in human–machine interaction. However, the existing master control devices are not fully suitable for either the mechanical mechanism or the control method. This study proposes a brand-new, four-degree-of-freedom haptic joystick whose main control stick could rotate around a fixed point. The rotational inertia is reduced by mounting all powertrain components on the base plane. Based on the design, kinematic and static models are proposed for position perception and force output analysis, while at the same time gravity compensation is also performed to calibrate the system. Using a continuum-mechanism-based trans-esophageal ultrasound robot as the test platform, a master–slave teleoperation scheme with position–velocity mapping and variable impedance control is proposed to integrate the speed regulation on the master side and the force perception on the slave side. The experimental results show that the main accuracy of the design is within 1.6°. The workspace of the control sticks is −60° to 110° in pitch angle, −40° to 40° in yaw angle, −180° to 180° in roll angle, and −90° to 90° in translation angle. The standard deviation of force output is within 8% of the full range, and the mean absolute error is 1.36°/s for speed control and 0.055 N for force feedback. Based on this evidence, it is believed that the proposed haptic joystick is a good addition to the existing work in the field with well-developed and effective features to enable the teleoperation of continuum robots for medical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immersive Teleoperation and AI)

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15 pages, 1977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Positioning Control of Robotic Manipulators Subject to Excitation from Non-Ideal Sources

by Angelo M. Tusset, Amarildo E. B. Pereira, Jose M. Balthazar, Frederic C. Janzen, Clivaldo Oliveira, Maria E. K. Fuziki and Giane G. Lenzi

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020051 - 27 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2003

Abstract

The present work proposes the use of a hybrid controller combining concepts of a PID controller with LQR and a feedforward gain to control the positioning of a 2 DOF robotic arm with flexible joints subject to non-ideal excitations. To characterize the performance [...] Read more.

The present work proposes the use of a hybrid controller combining concepts of a PID controller with LQR and a feedforward gain to control the positioning of a 2 DOF robotic arm with flexible joints subject to non-ideal excitations. To characterize the performance of the controls, two cases were studied. The first case considered the positioning control of the two links in fixed positions, while the second case considered the situation in which the second link is in rotational movement and the first one stays in a fixed position, representing a system with a non-ideal excitation source. In addition to the second case, the sensitivity of the proposed controls for changes in the length and mass of the second link in the rotational movement was analyzed. The results of the simulations showed the effectiveness of the controls, demonstrating that the PID control combined with feedforward gain provides the lowest error for both cases studied; however, it is sensitive to variations in the mass of the second link, in the case of rotational movements. The numerical results also revealed the effectiveness of the PD control obtained by LQR, presenting results similar to the PID control combined with feedforward gain, demonstrating the importance of the optimal control design. Full article

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19 pages, 16889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the Tilt and Torsion Angles for a 3-SPS-U Parallel Mechanism

by Swaminath Venkateswaran and Damien Chablat

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020050 - 24 Mar 2023

Viewed by 2773

Abstract

This article presents the analysis of a parallel mechanism of type 3-SPS-U. The usual singularity approach is carried out with respect to the Euler angles of the universal joint. However, this approach is computationally expensive especially when stacked structures are analyzed. Thus, the [...] Read more.

This article presents the analysis of a parallel mechanism of type 3-SPS-U. The usual singularity approach is carried out with respect to the Euler angles of the universal joint. However, this approach is computationally expensive especially when stacked structures are analyzed. Thus, the positioning of the mobile platform for the mechanism is analyzed using the theory of Tilt and Torsion (T&T). The singularity-free workspace and the tilt limits of the mechanism are disclosed through this method. These workspaces can then be mapped to the Euler angles of the universal joint and the relation between the T&T space and the Euler space is demonstrated and validated in this study. Initially, simulations are performed using the results of singularity analysis to have a comparison between the T&T space and the Euler space. Experimental validation is then carried out on the prototype of the mechanism to perform a circular trajectory, in line with the simulations. The outcome of this study will be helpful for the integration of the mechanism for a piping inspection robot and also for the analysis of stacked architectures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics and Parallel Kinematic Machines)

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21 pages, 2304 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RV4JaCa—Towards Runtime Verification of Multi-Agent Systems and Robotic Applications

by Debora C. Engelmann, Angelo Ferrando, Alison R. Panisson, Davide Ancona, Rafael H. Bordini and Viviana Mascardi

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020049 - 24 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2180

Abstract

This paper presents a Runtime Verification (RV) approach for Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) using the JaCaMo framework. Our objective is to bring a layer of security to the MAS. This is achieved keeping in mind possible safety-critical uses of the MAS, such as robotic [...] Read more.

This paper presents a Runtime Verification (RV) approach for Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) using the JaCaMo framework. Our objective is to bring a layer of security to the MAS. This is achieved keeping in mind possible safety-critical uses of the MAS, such as robotic applications. This layer is capable of controlling events during the execution of the system without needing a specific implementation in the behaviour of each agent to recognise the events. In this paper, we mainly focus on MAS when used in the context of hybrid intelligence. This use requires communication between software agents and human beings. In some cases, communication takes place via natural language dialogues. However, this kind of communication brings us to a concern related to controlling the flow of dialogue so that agents can prevent any change in the topic of discussion that could impair their reasoning. The latter may be a problem and undermine the development of the software agents. In this paper, we tackle this problem by proposing and demonstrating the implementation of a framework that aims to control the dialogue flow in a MAS; especially when the MAS communicates with the user through natural language to aid decision-making in a hospital bed allocation scenario. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agents and Robots for Reliable Engineered Autonomy 2023)

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14 pages, 1390 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Revolutionizing Social Robotics: A Cloud-Based Framework for Enhancing the Intelligence and Autonomy of Social Robots

by Abdelrahman Osman Elfaki, Mohammed Abduljabbar, Luqman Ali, Fady Alnajjar, Dua’a Mehiar, Ashraf M. Marei, Tareq Alhmiedat and Adel Al-Jumaily

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020048 - 24 Mar 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4285

Abstract

Social robots have the potential to revolutionize the way we interact with technology, providing a wide range of services and applications in various domains, such as healthcare, education, and entertainment. However, most existing social robotics platforms are operated based on embedded computers, which [...] Read more.

Social robots have the potential to revolutionize the way we interact with technology, providing a wide range of services and applications in various domains, such as healthcare, education, and entertainment. However, most existing social robotics platforms are operated based on embedded computers, which limits the robot’s capabilities to access advanced AI-based platforms available online and which are required for sophisticated physical human–robot interactions (such as Google Cloud AI, Microsoft Azure Machine Learning, IBM Watson, ChatGPT, etc.). In this research project, we introduce a cloud-based framework that utilizes the benefits of cloud computing and clustering to enhance the capabilities of social robots and overcome the limitations of current embedded platforms. The proposed framework was tested in different robots to assess the general feasibility of the solution, including a customized robot, “BuSaif”, and commercialized robots, “Husky”, “NAO”, and “Pepper”. Our findings suggest that the implementation of the proposed platform will result in more intelligent and autonomous social robots that can be utilized by a broader range of users, including those with less expertise. The present study introduces a novel methodology for augmenting the functionality of social robots, concurrently simplifying their utilization for non-experts. This approach has the potential to open up novel possibilities within the domain of social robotics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Robots for the Human Well-Being)

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28 pages, 2248 KiB

Open AccessReview

Indoor Positioning Systems of Mobile Robots: A Review

by Jiahao Huang, Steffen Junginger, Hui Liu and Kerstin Thurow

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020047 - 24 Mar 2023

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 12423

Abstract

Recently, with the in-depth development of Industry 4.0 worldwide, mobile robots have become a research hotspot. Indoor localization has become a key component in many fields and the basis for all actions of mobile robots. This paper screened 147 papers in the field [...] Read more.

Recently, with the in-depth development of Industry 4.0 worldwide, mobile robots have become a research hotspot. Indoor localization has become a key component in many fields and the basis for all actions of mobile robots. This paper screened 147 papers in the field of indoor positioning of mobile robots from 2019 to 2021. First, 12 mainstream indoor positioning methods and related positioning technologies for mobile robots are introduced and compared in detail. Then, the selected papers were summarized. The common attributes and laws were discovered. The development trend of indoor positioning of mobile robots is obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The State-of-the-Art of Robotics in Europe)

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24 pages, 4387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

VEsNA, a Framework for Virtual Environments via Natural Language Agents and Its Application to Factory Automation

by Andrea Gatti and Viviana Mascardi

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020046 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2792

Abstract

Automating a factory where robots are involved is neither trivial nor cheap. Engineering the factory automation process in such a way that return of interest is maximized and risk for workers and equipment is minimized is hence, of paramount importance. Simulation can be [...] Read more.

Automating a factory where robots are involved is neither trivial nor cheap. Engineering the factory automation process in such a way that return of interest is maximized and risk for workers and equipment is minimized is hence, of paramount importance. Simulation can be a game changer in this scenario but requires advanced programming skills that domain experts and industrial designers might not have. In this paper, we present the preliminary design and implementation of a general-purpose framework for creating and exploiting Virtual Environments via Natural language Agents (VEsNA). VEsNA takes advantage of agent-based technologies and natural language processing to enhance the design of virtual environments. The natural language input provided to VEsNA is understood by a chatbot and passed to an intelligent cognitive agent that implements the logic behind displacing objects in the virtual environment. In the complete VEsNA vision, for which this paper provides the building blocks, the intelligent agent will be able to reason on this displacement and on its compliance with legal and normative constraints. It will also be able to implement what-if analysis and case-based reasoning. Objects populating the virtual environment will include active objects and will populate a dynamic simulation whose outcomes will be interpreted by the cognitive agent; further autonomous agents, representing workers in the factory, will be added to make the virtual environment even more realistic; explanations and suggestions will be passed back to the user by the chatbot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agents and Robots for Reliable Engineered Autonomy 2023)

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2 pages, 187 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue on Advances in Industrial Robotics and Intelligent Systems

by António Paulo Moreira, Pedro Neto and Félix Vidal

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020045 - 20 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1490

Abstract

Robotics and intelligent systems are intricately connected, each exploring their respective capabilities and moving towards a common goal [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Industrial Robotics and Intelligent Systems)

20 pages, 7213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Knee Assistive Moment in a Gait Cycle Using Knee Angle and Knee Angular Velocity through Machine Learning and Artificial Stiffness Control Strategy (MLASCS)

by Khemwutta Pornpipatsakul and Nopdanai Ajavakom

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020044 - 17 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3509

Abstract

Nowadays, many people around the world cannot walk perfectly because of their knee problems. A knee-assistive device is one option to support walking for those with low or not enough knee muscle forces. Many research studies have created knee devices with control systems [...] Read more.

Nowadays, many people around the world cannot walk perfectly because of their knee problems. A knee-assistive device is one option to support walking for those with low or not enough knee muscle forces. Many research studies have created knee devices with control systems implementing different techniques and sensors. This study proposes an alternative version of the knee device control system without using too many actuators and sensors. It applies the machine learning and artificial stiffness control strategy (MLASCS) that uses one actuator combined with an encoder for estimating the amount of assistive support in a walking gait from the recorded gait data. The study recorded several gait data and analyzed knee moments, and then trained a k-nearest neighbor model using the knee angle and the angular velocity to classify a state in a gait cycle. This control strategy also implements instantaneous artificial stiffness (IAS), a control system that requires only knee angle in each state to determine the amount of supporting moment. After validating the model via simulation, the accuracy of the machine learning model is around 99.9% with the speed of 165 observers/s, and the walking effort is reduced by up to 60% in a single gait cycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Intelligent Systems and Robotics)

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37 pages, 817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Broad View on Robot Self-Defense: Rapid Scoping Review and Cultural Comparison

by Martin Cooney, Masahiro Shiomi, Eduardo Kochenborger Duarte and Alexey Vinel

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020043 - 16 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4220

Abstract

With power comes responsibility: as robots become more advanced and prevalent, the role they will play in human society becomes increasingly important. Given that violence is an important problem, the question emerges if robots could defend people, even if doing so might cause [...] Read more.

With power comes responsibility: as robots become more advanced and prevalent, the role they will play in human society becomes increasingly important. Given that violence is an important problem, the question emerges if robots could defend people, even if doing so might cause harm to someone. The current study explores the broad context of how people perceive the acceptability of such robot self-defense (RSD) in terms of (1) theory, via a rapid scoping review, and (2) public opinion in two countries. As a result, we summarize and discuss: increasing usage of robots capable of wielding force by law enforcement and military, negativity toward robots, ethics and legal questions (including differences to the well-known trolley problem), control in the presence of potential failures, and practical capabilities that such robots might require. Furthermore, a survey was conducted, indicating that participants accepted the idea of RSD, with some cultural differences. We believe that, while substantial obstacles will need to be overcome to realize RSD, society stands to gain from exploring its possibilities over the longer term, toward supporting human well-being in difficult times. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Robots for the Human Well-Being)

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15 pages, 5634 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Efficiency of a Wheeled Bio-Inspired Hexapod Walking Robot in Sloping Terrain

by Marek Žák, Jaroslav Rozman and František V. Zbořil

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020042 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3217

Abstract

Multi-legged robots, such as hexapods, have great potential to navigate challenging terrain. However, their design and control are usually much more complex and energy-demanding compared to wheeled robots. This paper presents a wheeled six-legged robot with five degrees of freedom, that is able [...] Read more.

Multi-legged robots, such as hexapods, have great potential to navigate challenging terrain. However, their design and control are usually much more complex and energy-demanding compared to wheeled robots. This paper presents a wheeled six-legged robot with five degrees of freedom, that is able to move on a flat surface using wheels and switch to gait in rugged terrain, which reduces energy consumption. The novel joint configuration mimics the structure of insect limbs and allows our robot to overcome difficult terrain. The wheels reduce energy consumption when moving on flat terrain and the trochanter joint reduces energy consumption when moving on slopes, extending the operating time and range of the robot. The results of experiments on sloping terrain are presented. It was confirmed that the use of the trochanter joint can lead to a reduction in energy consumption when moving in sloping terrain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Intelligent Systems and Robotics)

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16 pages, 7432 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Grasping Complex-Shaped and Thin Objects Using a Generative Grasping Convolutional Neural Network

by Jaeseok Kim, Olivia Nocentini, Muhammad Zain Bashir and Filippo Cavallo

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020041 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2802

Abstract

Vision-based pose detection and grasping complex-shaped and thin objects are challenging tasks. We propose an architecture that integrates the Generative Grasping Convolutional Neural Network (GG-CNN) with depth recognition to identify a suitable grasp pose. First, we construct a training dataset with data augmentation [...] Read more.

Vision-based pose detection and grasping complex-shaped and thin objects are challenging tasks. We propose an architecture that integrates the Generative Grasping Convolutional Neural Network (GG-CNN) with depth recognition to identify a suitable grasp pose. First, we construct a training dataset with data augmentation to train a GG-CNN with only RGB images. Then, we extract a segment of the tool using a color segmentation method and use it to calculate an average depth. Additionally, we apply and evaluate different encoder–decoder models with a GG-CNN structure using the Intersection Over Union (IOU). Finally, we validate the proposed architecture by performing real-world grasping and pick-and-place experiments. Our framework achieves a success rate of over 85.6% for picking and placing seen surgical tools and 90% for unseen surgical tools. We collected a dataset of surgical tools and validated their pick and place with different GG-CNN architectures. In the future, we aim to expand the dataset of surgical tools and improve the accuracy of the GG-CNN. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medical Robotics and Service Robotics)

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18 pages, 860 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Evolving Type-2 Fuzzy System for Controlling a Mobile Robot under Large Uncertainties

by Ayad Al-Mahturi, Fendy Santoso, Matthew A. Garratt and Sreenatha G. Anavatti

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020040 - 10 Mar 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2466

Abstract

This paper presents the development of a type-2 evolving fuzzy control system (T2-EFCS) to facilitate self-learning (either from scratch or from a certain predefined rule). Our system has two major learning stages, namely, structure learning and parameters learning. The structure phase does not [...] Read more.

This paper presents the development of a type-2 evolving fuzzy control system (T2-EFCS) to facilitate self-learning (either from scratch or from a certain predefined rule). Our system has two major learning stages, namely, structure learning and parameters learning. The structure phase does not require previous information about the fuzzy structure, and it can start the construction of its rules from scratch with only one initial fuzzy rule. The rules are then continuously updated and pruned in an online fashion to achieve the desired set point. For the phase of learning parameters, all adjustable parameters of the fuzzy system are tuned by using a sliding surface method, which is based on the gradient descent algorithm. This method is used to minimize the difference between the expected and actual signals. Our proposed control method is model-free and does not require prior knowledge of the plant’s dynamics or constraints. Instead, data-driven control utilizes artificial intelligence-based techniques, such as fuzzy logic systems, to learn the dynamics of the system and adapt to changes in the system, and account for complex interactions between different components. A robustness term is incorporated into the control effort to deal with external disturbances in the system. The proposed technique is applied to regulate the dynamics of a mobile robot in the presence of multiple external disturbances, demonstrating the robustness of the proposed control systems. A rigorous comparative study with respect to three different controllers is performed, where the outcomes illustrate the superiority of the proposed learning method as evidenced by lower RMSE values and fewer fuzzy parameters. Lastly, stability analysis of the proposed control method is conducted using the Lyapunov stability theory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Robots and Mechatronics)

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29 pages, 40327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multistage Framework for Autonomous Robotic Mapping with Targeted Metrics

by William Smith, Yongming Qin, Siddharth Singh, Hudson Burke, Tomonari Furukawa and Gamini Dissanayake

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020039 - 9 Mar 2023

Viewed by 2647

Abstract

High-quality maps are pertinent to performing tasks requiring precision interaction with the environment. Current challenges with creating a high-precision map come from the need for both high pose accuracy and scan accuracy, and the goal of reliable autonomous performance of the task. In [...] Read more.

High-quality maps are pertinent to performing tasks requiring precision interaction with the environment. Current challenges with creating a high-precision map come from the need for both high pose accuracy and scan accuracy, and the goal of reliable autonomous performance of the task. In this paper, we propose a multistage framework to create a high-precision map of an environment which satisfies the targeted resolution and local accuracy by an autonomous mobile robot. The proposed framework consists of three steps. Each step is intended to aid in resolving the challenges faced by conventional approaches. In order to ensure the pose estimation is performed with high accuracy, a globally accurate coarse map of the environment is created using a conventional technique such as simultaneous localization and mapping or structure from motion with bundle adjustment. The high scan accuracy is ensured by planning a path for the robot to revisit the environment while maintaining a desired distance to all occupied regions. Since the map is to be created with targeted metrics, an online path replanning and pose refinement technique is proposed to autonomously achieve the metrics without compromising the pose and scan accuracy. The proposed framework was first validated on the ability to address the current challenges associated with accuracy through parametric studies of the proposed steps. The autonomous capability of the proposed framework was been demonstrated successfully in its use for a practical mission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section AI in Robotics)

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26 pages, 7722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inverse Kinematic Solver Based on Bat Algorithm for Robotic Arm Path Planning

by Mohamed Slim, Nizar Rokbani, Bilel Neji, Mohamed Ali Terres and Taha Beyrouthy

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020038 - 9 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3268

Abstract

The bat algorithm (BA) is a nature inspired algorithm which is mimicking the bio-sensing characteristics of bats, known as echolocation. This paper suggests a Bat-based meta-heuristic for the inverse kinematics problem of a robotic arm. An intrinsically modified BA is proposed to find [...] Read more.

The bat algorithm (BA) is a nature inspired algorithm which is mimicking the bio-sensing characteristics of bats, known as echolocation. This paper suggests a Bat-based meta-heuristic for the inverse kinematics problem of a robotic arm. An intrinsically modified BA is proposed to find an inverse kinematics (IK) solution, respecting a minimum variation of the joints’ elongation from the initial configuration of the robot manipulator to the proposed new pause position. The proposed method is called IK-BA, it stands for a specific bat algorithm dedicated to robotic-arms’ inverse geometric solution, and where the elongation control mechanism is embedded in bat agents update equations. Performances analysis and comparatives to related state of art meta-heuristics solvers showed the effectiveness of the proposed IK bat solver for single point IK planning as well as for geometric path planning, which may have several industrial applications. IK-BA was also applied to a real robotic arm with a spherical wrist as a proof of concept and pertinence of the proposed approach. Full article

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30 pages, 7237 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Perspectives in Collaborative Assembly: A Review

by Thierry Yonga Chuengwa, Jan Adriaan Swanepoel, Anish Matthew Kurien, Mukondeleli Grace Kanakana-Katumba and Karim Djouani

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020037 - 7 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5294

Abstract

In recent years, the emergence of Industry 4.0 technologies has introduced manufacturing disruptions that necessitate the development of accompanying socio-technical solutions. There is growing interest for manufacturing enterprises to embrace the drivers of the Smart Industry paradigm. Among these drivers, human–robot physical co-manipulation [...] Read more.

In recent years, the emergence of Industry 4.0 technologies has introduced manufacturing disruptions that necessitate the development of accompanying socio-technical solutions. There is growing interest for manufacturing enterprises to embrace the drivers of the Smart Industry paradigm. Among these drivers, human–robot physical co-manipulation of objects has gained significant interest in the literature on assembly operations. Motivated by the requirement for human dyads between the human and the robot counterpart, this study investigates recent literature on the implementation methods of human–robot collaborative assembly scenarios. Using a combination of strings, the researchers performed a systematic review search, sourcing 451 publications from various databases (Science Direct (253), IEEE Xplore (49), Emerald (32), PudMed (21) and SpringerLink (96)). A coding assignment in Eppi-Reviewer helped screen the literature based on ‘exclude’ and ‘include’ criteria. The final number of full-text publications considered in this literature review is 118 peer-reviewed research articles published up until September 2022. The findings anticipate that research publications in the fields of human–robot collaborative assembly will continue to grow. Understanding and modeling the human interaction and behavior in robot co-assembly is crucial to the development of future sustainable smart factories. Machine vision and digital twins modeling begin to emerge as promising interfaces for the evaluation of tasks distribution strategies for mitigating the actual human ergonomic and safety risks in collaborative assembly solutions design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Factors in Human–Robot Interaction)

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18 pages, 2093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inverse Kinematics of a Class of 6R Collaborative Robots with Non-Spherical Wrist

by Luca Carbonari, Matteo-Claudio Palpacelli and Massimo Callegari

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020036 - 3 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4921

Abstract

The spread of cobotsin common industrial practice has led constructors to prefer the development of collaborative features that are necessary to prevent injuries to operators over the realization of simple kinematic structures for which the joints-to-workspace mapping is well known. An example is [...] Read more.

The spread of cobotsin common industrial practice has led constructors to prefer the development of collaborative features that are necessary to prevent injuries to operators over the realization of simple kinematic structures for which the joints-to-workspace mapping is well known. An example is given by the replacement in serial robots of spherical wrists with safer solutions, where the danger of crushing and shearing is intrinsically avoided. Despite this tendency, the kinematic map between actuated joints and the Cartesian workspace remains of paramount importance for robot analysis and programming, deserving the attention of the research community. This paper proposes a closed-form solution for the inverse kinematics of a class of 6R robotic arms with six degrees of freedom and non-spherical wrists. The solutions are worked out by a single polynomial, of minimum degree, in terms of one of the positioning parameters chosen for the description of the robot posture. The roots of such a polynomial are then back-substituted to determine all the remaining unknowns. A numerical example is finally shown to verify the validity of the proposed implementation for a commercial collaborative robot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinematics and Robot Design V, KaRD2022)

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11 pages, 2347 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simple Controller for Omnidirectional Trotting of Quadrupedal Robots: Command Following and Waypoint Tracking

by Pranav A. Bhounsule and Chun-Ming Yang

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020035 - 28 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2645

Abstract

For autonomous legged robots to be deployed in practical scenarios, they need to perform perception, motion planning, and locomotion control. Since robots have limited computing capabilities, it is important to realize locomotion control with simple controllers that have modest calculations. The goal of [...] Read more.

For autonomous legged robots to be deployed in practical scenarios, they need to perform perception, motion planning, and locomotion control. Since robots have limited computing capabilities, it is important to realize locomotion control with simple controllers that have modest calculations. The goal of this paper is to create computational simple controllers for locomotion control that can free up computational resources for more demanding computational tasks, such as perception and motion planning. The controller consists of a leg scheduler for sequencing a trot gait with a fixed step time; a reference trajectory generator for the feet in the Cartesian space, which is then mapped to the joint space using an analytical inverse; and a joint controller using a combination of feedforward torques based on static equilibrium and feedback torque. The resulting controller enables velocity command following in the forward, sideways, and turning directions. With these three velocity command following-modes, a waypoint tracking controller is developed that can track a curve in global coordinates using feedback linearization. The command following and waypoint tracking controllers are demonstrated in simulation and on hardware. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Robots and Mechatronics)

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19 pages, 8090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stastaball: Design and Control of a Statically Stable Ball Robot

by Luca Fornarelli, Jack Young, Thomas McKenna, Ebenezer Koya and John Hedley

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020034 - 28 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3126

Abstract

Ballbots are omnidirectional robots in which a robot chassis is built and balanced on top of a ball, thereby allowing for a highly manoeuvrable platform on a planar surface. However, the stability of such robots is performed dynamically with the use of a [...] Read more.

Ballbots are omnidirectional robots in which a robot chassis is built and balanced on top of a ball, thereby allowing for a highly manoeuvrable platform on a planar surface. However, the stability of such robots is performed dynamically with the use of a suitable controller, and thus, power to such robots must be continually maintained. In this paper, a novel approach to the ballbot design is presented in which unpowered static stability is maintained mechanically by a suitable choice of position for the centre of mass of the robot. The simulations of the design and a built prototype evidence the feasibility of such an approach, demonstrating static stability and performance parameters of three degrees of freedom movement, linear speeds of 0.05 m/s, rotation angular speed of 1 rad/s and the ability to traverse inclines up to 3°. Limitations in performance were predominantly due to compressibility of the ball used and power of the motors. Areas for future development to address these issues are suggested. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Trends and Advances in Mechanism Design and Robotics)

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17 pages, 14981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Sensor-Based Geometry Prediction of Complex Sheet Metal Parts Formed by Robotic Rollforming

by Tina Abdolmohammadi, Valentin Richter-Trummer, Antje Ahrens, Karsten Richter, Alaa Alibrahim and Markus Werner

Robotics 2023, 12(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12020033 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2182

Abstract

Sheet metal parts can often replace milled components, strongly improving the buy-to-fly ratio in the aeronautical sector. However, the sheet metal forming of complex parts traditionally requires expensive tooling, which is usually prohibitive for low manufacturing rates. To achieve precise parts, non-productive and [...] Read more.

Sheet metal parts can often replace milled components, strongly improving the buy-to-fly ratio in the aeronautical sector. However, the sheet metal forming of complex parts traditionally requires expensive tooling, which is usually prohibitive for low manufacturing rates. To achieve precise parts, non-productive and cost-intensive geometry straightening processes are additionally often required after forming. Rollforming is a possible technology for producing profiles at large rates. For low manufacturing rates, robotic rollforming can be an interesting option, significantly reducing investment at the cost of higher manufacturing times while keeping a high process flexibility. Forming is performed incrementally by a single roller set moved by the robot along predefined bending curves. The present work’s contribution to the overall solution is the development of an intelligent algorithm to calculate geometry after a robotic rollforming process based on process reaction forces. This information is required for in-process geometric distortion correction. Reaction forces and torques are acquired during the process, and geometry is calculated based on artificial intelligence (AI) applied to that information. The present paper describes the AI development for this virtual geometry sensing system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Robots and Automation)

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Robotics, Volume 12, Issue 2 (April 2023) – 33 articles

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