Digital Stories and Inclusive Cultures at School: A Research Study in an Italian Primary Multicultural Classroom

Abstract

This study explores the effectiveness of digital storytelling in enhancing communicative competence—encompassing both linguistic and narrative skills—and fostering inclusivity in a multicultural primary classroom in Genoa, Italy. The quasi-experimental intervention spanned four months and involved eight lessons designed to engage students from diverse cultural backgrounds, particularly those with migratory backgrounds. Pre- and post-intervention assessments were conducted to evaluate linguistic proficiency, narrative competence, and educational inclusion. The results from the Italian language proficiency test demonstrated that second-generation students typically performed at the B1 level, while students with more recent migratory backgrounds scored lower. However, narrative competence showed notable improvements among A2+ level students, who outperformed their peers in certain dimensions despite linguistic challenges. Observational rubrics used throughout the intervention revealed increased classroom inclusivity, active participation, and cultural exchange. Despite limitations related to the sample size and intervention duration, the findings suggest that digital storytelling can significantly enhance communicative competence and promote a more inclusive classroom environment. Future research should investigate the long-term effects of digital storytelling on multilingual classrooms and its broader applicability.

1. Introduction

Addressing linguistic and cultural diversity in primary classrooms presents significant challenges for educators. Güven and colleagues [1] highlight issues such as academic achievement gaps, difficulties in student adaptation, and instances of bullying, all of which are common in multicultural settings. Efstratopoulou [2] and Buchs and Maradan [3] emphasize that when diversity is effectively managed, it enhances learning outcomes and fosters inclusivity. Similarly, Green and colleagues [4] stress the importance of preparing students for a globally diverse society, underscoring the need for pedagogical strategies that support this goal.

One such pedagogical strategy is digital storytelling, which has gained recognition as a powerful educational tool, particularly in multicultural contexts. Robin [5] first identified digital storytelling as an effective method for combining traditional storytelling with digital technology to promote student engagement and learning outcomes. More recent studies, such as those by [6], have highlighted its potential in supporting multilingual students by allowing them to share their personal and cultural narratives within the classroom. This process not only enhances narrative competence, but also promotes inclusivity, as students are encouraged to express their unique identities through storytelling.

In multicultural classrooms, inclusive teaching methods are essential for bridging linguistic and cultural divides. Digital storytelling is particularly effective in this regard, as it enables students from diverse cultural backgrounds to engage meaningfully with the curriculum while expressing their individual identities [7]. Through this approach, students develop both linguistic and cultural competencies, which are vital in a multicultural educational context.

This study focuses on the use of digital storytelling in a multicultural primary classroom in Genoa, Northwestern Italy. The intervention employed culturally and linguistically responsive instruction, building on the research of [5], who demonstrated the benefits of merging traditional storytelling with digital tools. This method was particularly advantageous for students from migratory backgrounds, as it integrated their cultural and linguistic experiences into the learning process. While previous research has shown the potential of digital storytelling in various educational settings, there is limited empirical evidence regarding its effectiveness in promoting linguistic competence and fostering inclusivity, particularly in primary schools with a high percentage of students from migratory backgrounds.

The present study seeks to fill this gap by examining how digital storytelling can be used to enhance both narrative and linguistic skills in a culturally diverse group of primary school students. A mixed-method approach, involving standardized assessments and observational rubrics, was used to evaluate the intervention’s impact. The findings suggest that digital storytelling not only facilitates inclusion, but also supports a pedagogical approach that promotes multicultural and multilingual communication. In doing so, this study contributes to the growing body of research on culturally responsive teaching methods, particularly in the context of technology-enhanced learning.

The structure of the paper is as follows: the literature review begins by examining the theoretical background and prior research on multicultural education, linguistic and narrative competences, and digital storytelling, positioning this study within the broader academic context. The research questions guiding the study are then presented at the end of this theoretical background. The methodology section then outlines the research design, participants, and methods used for data collection and analysis. Following this, the results section presents the key findings from both quantitative and qualitative analyses, focusing on the impact of the intervention on students’ linguistic and narrative skills. The discussion interprets these findings in relation to the research questions, theoretical framework, and existing literature. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the study’s contributions, acknowledges its limitations, and suggests directions for future research.

2. Preparing Children for Multicultural Classrooms

Today’s educational landscape sees classrooms increasingly becoming shared spaces of diverse cultures, ethnicities, languages, and traditions. These environments provide varied and ample learning and interaction opportunities for students from different cultural backgrounds, but also pose significant challenges for educators. Multicultural classrooms, defined as environments that incorporate cultural diversity and promote equity and academic achievement for all students [8], extend beyond recognizing cultural identities to valuing and integrating them into meaningful learning experiences. Gutiérrez and colleagues [9] emphasize the aim of multicultural education to reconcile diversity education with the provision of common skills and attitudes. Craft [10] highlights its importance in the context of increasing cultural diversity due to immigration and globalization. Sleeter [11] notes that students in these classrooms uncover new traditions and perspectives, fostering consciousness and respect for different cultures and cultivating an open-minded and inclusive mentality.

Culturally responsive teaching, a key aspect of multicultural education, involves using the cultural knowledge and experiences of diverse students to make learning more effective for them [12]. Teachers need to be aware of the diverse needs of students, employing various educational strategies and tools tailored to the context and class group. Multicultural classrooms also require addressing concepts such as the inclusion of underrepresented cultures and ethnic backgrounds in curriculum materials and diversifying teacher educators [13]. Banks [14] states that achieving these objectives necessitates significant reforms in school curricula and social structures, as well as enhancing teacher preparation.

In navigating these challenges, three key areas emerge as essential for constructing an effective pedagogical framework: multicultural education, linguistic and narrative competences, and digital storytelling. These areas are crucial in creating inclusive educational practices that meet the diverse needs of students.

First, multicultural education provides the foundational context for understanding the complexities of teaching in culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms. As classrooms become more multicultural, it is important to explore pedagogical strategies that promote inclusivity and ensure equal opportunities for all students, regardless of their background. Incorporating multicultural education within the framework ensures alignment with current educational challenges and opportunities arising from globalization.

Second, linguistic and narrative competences are fundamental to the skills targeted by educational interventions. Linguistic competence enables effective communication, while narrative competence is key for students’ ability to structure and express their thoughts. Focusing on these competences emphasizes their role in the educational development of students, especially those from migratory backgrounds, who often face unique linguistic challenges.

Lastly, digital storytelling serves as a method for integrating technology with cultural and linguistic expression. This approach not only enhances student engagement, but also provides a platform for sharing personal and cultural narratives, which is particularly valuable in multicultural classrooms. It offers a bridge between students’ diverse experiences and the curriculum, thereby supporting both linguistic and cultural competence.

These three aspects will be explored in detail in the following sections, laying the theoretical groundwork for the study.

2.1. Defining Relevant Competences for Multicultural Classrooms

In multicultural environments, it is imperative to focus on relevant competencies for inclusive and equitable educational development. Essential competencies include multicultural understanding, empathy, and effective communication. Multilingual competence is crucial, as being proficient in multiple languages is a prerequisite for multicultural competence [15]. Communicative competence, encompassing organizational, pragmatic, and strategic aspects, is key for assessing language proficiency and necessary for developing multicultural competence [16]. Strong interpersonal and communication skills, crucial in fields like neurosurgery for patient care and professionalism, are similarly essential in a multicultural educational context [17]. These skills enable effective interaction and understanding among individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, forming the foundation for multicultural competence [18,19,20].

Language proficiency plays a relevant role in developing multicultural competence by facilitating identity construction, enhancing communication skills, and fostering positive attitudes towards multicultural differences [21]. Two essential skills are linguistic competence and narrative competence, crucial for effective communication and expression in diverse educational settings. Linguistic competence refers to the innate universal linguistic predisposition and internal ability to understand and use language [22], while narrative competence is the ability to effectively produce and comprehend narratives [23].

In the context of multicultural classrooms, linguistic competence is crucial for students to navigate and communicate in different languages and cultures [24]. Narrative competence, on the other hand, plays a significant role in language proficiency and academic achievement [25,26]. It is important to note that narrative competence is not solely dependent on language proficiency, as other factors such as cognitive abilities and linguistic skills also contribute to its development [27]. Early language skills, including comprehension of relational terms and morphosyntactic knowledge, have been found to influence the development of narrative competence in young children [25].

Educational interventions for linguistic competence must differentiate between second language (L2) learning, which involves cultural immersion, and learning a foreign language (LS) in a classroom setting. It is essential to ensure educational equality for students from immigrant backgrounds, recognizing their unique linguistic challenges. This entails using tailored teaching strategies and understanding the complexities of L2 acquisition, such as vocabulary and grammar [28]. Teachers should create an inclusive environment that respects and integrates diverse linguistic experiences, promoting effective communication in a multicultural educational setting.

2.2. Monitoring Linguistic and Narrative Competences in Multicultural Classrooms

In a multicultural classroom, the intertwining of narrative competence and language learning plays a pivotal role in shaping students’ effective communication and academic success. Narrative competence, closely linked to linguistic skills, involves an intricate blend of vocabulary development, understanding of language structure, practice in fluent discourse, and the development of listening and comprehension abilities. Additionally, it encompasses a comprehension of culture and context.

Understanding a child’s narrative abilities, especially in bilingual contexts, offers vital insights into their linguistic proficiency and narrative skills. This awareness allows educators to pinpoint areas needing improvement and adapt teaching methods accordingly [29]. According to Balboni [30], the evaluation of oral narratives should focus on autonomy and the ability to narrate coherently, rather than on morphosyntactic or lexical accuracy, emphasizing the overcoming of linguistic barriers. Assessing narrative skills in students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds is equally important. It helps distinguish between narrative variations and impaired narratives, enabling clinicians and educators to provide suitable support and interventions [31].

Furthermore, culturally responsive interventions, like the creation and sharing of dual-language identity texts, have demonstrated efficacy in enhancing vocabulary and narrative abilities, particularly in English language learners (ELLs) [32]. Such practices not only foster language skills, but also promote student engagement and achievement by valuing students’ cultural and linguistic heritage.

In summary, monitoring and understanding both linguistic and narrative competences in a multicultural educational setting are essential. These competencies provide educators with a comprehensive view of students’ abilities, enabling them to foster a more inclusive, responsive, and engaging learning environment. By their assessment, educators can gain insights into students’ cultural backgrounds and tailor their teaching strategies accordingly.

2.3. Using Digital Stories to Bridge Language, Culture and Identity in Multicultural Classrooms

Digital storytelling plays a significant and multifaceted role in multicultural education. It aligns with Bruner’s perspective of storytelling as a fundamental human and cultural activity, especially relevant in educational settings [33]. In multicultural classrooms, as Daloisio and Mezzadri [7] note, storytelling is a means for students to express and preserve their cultural identities. It offers students, especially those from minority or multilingual backgrounds, a platform to share their unique experiences and foster a sense of self-agency, as highlighted by Grigsby and colleagues [34]. This method is particularly empowering for second language learners, enabling them to articulate their perspectives. Meletiadou [35] emphasizes its effectiveness in enhancing the writing skills of multilingual students, facilitating creative and free self-expression while improving language proficiency.

Digital storytelling stands out for its student-centered approach, prioritizing individual narratives and cultural expressions, which is particularly effective in diverse educational settings [36]. It allows students to incorporate their personal and cultural stories into the classroom, thereby enriching the overall learning experience. This approach also fosters critical and creative engagement with literacy, as students blend their multilingual abilities into their storytelling [6].

The benefits of digital storytelling extend to educator preparation as well. Kobayashi [37] highlights its role in training future educators to understand and meet the needs of diverse learners. Condy and colleagues [38] show that digital storytelling not only boosts student engagement, but also cultivates empathy and insight among pre-service teachers, equipping them to navigate the complexities of multicultural classrooms.

Together, these studies illustrate that digital storytelling is not just a method of teaching language or literacy skills; it is a tool for cultural expression; personal empowerment; and fostering a more inclusive, empathetic, and understanding educational environment. However, while recognizing the benefits of digital storytelling, existing research often lacks a comprehensive approach, primarily focusing on individual case studies. The potential of digital storytelling as a tool for inclusion in multicultural classrooms, particularly in aiding second language learners, requires further exploration.

The study presented in this paper seeks to improve understanding of digital storytelling’s effectiveness in multicultural educational contexts, particularly in primary schools. It examines how digital storytelling can promote multicultural inclusion and enhance students’ linguistic and narrative skills. The research explores digital storytelling’s potential to create an inclusive environment and its impact on language and narrative abilities, hypothesizing that it can effectively improve narrative skills and contribute to a multicultural and inclusive educational atmosphere.

Communicative competence, as defined in this study, encompasses both linguistic competence (related to vocabulary, syntax, and fluency) and narrative competence (related to the ability to structure and convey stories), offering a comprehensive framework for evaluating students’ communication skills. In the context of this study, communicative competence is operationally measured by assessing both linguistic and narrative competencies, as outlined in the sections focused on language proficiency and narrative skills. By assessing these intertwined competencies, the study aims to provide a fuller picture of students’ overall ability to communicate effectively, particularly in a classroom where cultural and linguistic diversity is prevalent.

3. Research Questions

This study investigates the impact of digital storytelling on linguistic and narrative competences in a multicultural classroom, focusing on fostering inclusivity among students from migratory backgrounds.

The research is guided by the following questions and corresponding hypotheses:

• RQ1: How does digital storytelling impact the communicative competence of students in a multicultural primary classroom, particularly those from migratory backgrounds?
  • H1: Digital storytelling will improve the communicative competence of all students, with students from migratory backgrounds demonstrating particularly significant gains.
• RQ2: In what ways does digital storytelling foster inclusivity and participation in a culturally diverse classroom setting?
  Based on these questions, the study posits the following hypotheses:
  • H2: The use of digital storytelling will lead to higher levels of classroom inclusivity, fostering a more supportive and engaging environment for culturally diverse students.

4. Expected Changes Pre- and Post-Intervention

In line with the study’s research questions, this section presents the anticipated outcomes of the digital storytelling intervention, focusing on two key areas: communicative competence and educational inclusion. These expectations are based on pre-intervention assessments and the hypothesized impact on fostering inclusivity and improving communication skills in a diverse classroom.

4.1. Communicative Competence (Linguistic and Narrative Skills)

Before the intervention, most second-generation students, born and raised in Italy, are expected to perform at or near the B1 level in linguistic competence, reflecting their familiarity with Italian through daily interactions. In contrast, students from migratory backgrounds, particularly those who have recently arrived, are anticipated to score lower, at the A1 or A2 levels, due to their limited exposure to the language.

After the intervention, the digital storytelling approach is expected to enhance narrative competence, particularly among students from migratory backgrounds. These students are anticipated to show improvements in their ability to express macrostructural elements of narratives, such as events and characters, despite potential challenges in more technical linguistic areas. Second-generation students, with their greater familiarity with Italian, are expected to perform more consistently across both macrostructural and microstructural elements of narrative competence.

4.2. Educational Inclusion

Before the intervention, students from migrant backgrounds, especially those with lower proficiency in Italian, are expected to report lower levels of perceived inclusion, largely due to language barriers and difficulties with social integration. In contrast, second-generation students are anticipated to perceive higher levels of inclusion, reflecting their greater familiarity with both the language and school culture, as well as their increased participation in classroom activities.

After the intervention, the use of digital storytelling is expected to foster higher levels of classroom inclusivity by creating a more supportive and engaging environment for culturally diverse students. Students from migrant backgrounds are anticipated to experience increased group inclusion and active participation, while the integration of technology is expected to enhance collaboration and mutual respect among peers. Additionally, the intervention is expected to positively influence the engagement of students with language barriers, helping to bridge gaps in participation and interaction within the classroom.

5. Methodology

The study, conducted in a fourth-grade class at a primary school in Genoa, Italy, followed an empirical quasi-experimental design, incorporating active, participatory, and experiential learning in line with the “No Schoolbag” model [39]. An initial qualitative assessment of the classroom environment revealed a diverse range of student needs, including language barriers and bilingualism, alongside a gap in technological engagement.

While the classroom already emphasized diversity and inclusion through the “No Schoolbag” approach, which promotes active citizenship and cultural exchange, there were no specific measures to foster broader integration among students. Despite the cultural diversity, interactions were often limited to established friendship groups, hindering wider collaboration. Although efforts such as creative writing lessons allowed students to express personal and cultural experiences, technology use was minimal, and there was little personalization for students with specific educational needs.

The digital storytelling intervention aimed to address these gaps by encouraging collaboration and cultural exchange, particularly for students with language barriers. To tailor the intervention effectively, the study utilized a dual-testing approach. A language proficiency test administered before the intervention established a baseline for the students’ linguistic abilities, while a narrative skills test conducted post-intervention assessed narrative competence. This dual-testing strategy was designed to measure communicative competence, as defined in this study, which encompasses both linguistic and narrative skills. By employing these two assessments, the study sought to provide a comprehensive understanding of students’ overall communication abilities, while also minimizing cognitive and temporal strain during the short intervention period.

A similar dual approach was adopted to measure educational inclusion. A self-reported assessment of inclusion was conducted before the intervention, allowing students to express their perceptions of inclusivity within the classroom environment. This was complemented by rubrics for qualitative assessment, which were used throughout the intervention and at its conclusion. These rubrics, completed by the researcher–teacher and the regular classroom teachers, provided an ongoing evaluation of key aspects of inclusion, such as group participation, respect, cooperation, and the integration of students with language barriers. By combining self-reported data with continuous observational rubrics, the study captured a more dynamic and holistic view of how the intervention impacted educational inclusion over time.

The decision to avoid a conventional pre-post statistical comparison and instead assess linguistic and narrative competencies, along with the dimension of separate educational inclusion, was deliberate. This approach allowed for a more nuanced evaluation of the intervention’s impact, respecting the diverse needs and learning paces of the students. By addressing communicative competence and educational inclusion independently, the study was able to capture the effectiveness of the intervention in a multilingual and multicultural classroom setting and more accurately reflect the distinct dimensions of communicative competence and the evolving experience of inclusion.

5.1. Participants

The study involved a purposive, non-random sample of 22 students aged between 9 and 10 years, consisting of 12 boys and 10 girls. The entire class was selected as the sample due to its naturally occurring cultural and linguistic diversity, which made it an ideal context for exploring the impact of digital storytelling in a multicultural classroom setting.

The class was culturally heterogeneous, with 10 students who were native Italians and 12 students from migratory backgrounds. Among the 12 students with migratory backgrounds, 10 were second-generation immigrants, born and raised in Italy, and demonstrated adequate proficiency in Italian despite speaking different languages at home. These second-generation students came from Bolivia (n = 1), Morocco (n = 2), Albania (n = 1), Senegal (n = 1), Cameroon (n = 1), China (n = 1), and Tunisia (n = 1). However, two students from Bangladesh (n = 2), who were not second-generation immigrants, encountered significant difficulties, specifically in written and oral expression. While they did not show deficiencies in listening or general comprehension, they struggled with processing and articulating ideas in written and spoken Italian.

The two Bangladeshi students demonstrated different levels of language competence. One student, with consistent effort, achieved satisfactory performance across all language areas, while the other, who arrived in Italy at the age of 6, encountered more challenges in expressing and transcribing ideas. This student often sought support from the first student in social interactions. During recess, the two tended to spend time together, though when one was absent, the other integrated well with peers. The student who arrived at age 6 had also been identified with a language disorder, which contributed to the difficulties in acquiring Italian language skills.

The classroom’s diversity encouraged an open-minded learning environment and fostered the development of peer relationships. Nonetheless, challenges in broader social collaboration were observed, as students tended to interact primarily within their immediate friend groups. These dynamics highlighted the need for interventions to promote inclusivity and more effective collaboration across the entire class.

In this paper, the term “migrant background” refers specifically to students who come from immigrant families, either as first-generation immigrants (born outside of Italy) or second-generation immigrants (born in Italy to immigrant parents). All students with a migrant background in this study are external immigrants, meaning they or their families have migrated to Italy from other countries. The study does not include internal migrants, who would have moved from different regions within Italy.

5.2. Instruments

5.2.1. RQ1. Assessing Communicative Competence

The baseline Italian language proficiency was evaluated using a test from the Collection of Tools to Observe Linguistic Skills in Italian by Mattioli and Zoboli [40], focusing on written skills. Specifically, the test for the assessment of reading/listening and writing skills for primary school was employed for this assessment. Suitable for both non-native and native speakers, the test is usually administered at the beginning of the school year, lasting up to two hours. Aligned with the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for Languages scale from A1 to B1+ levels, it comprises ten tasks of varying difficulty, assessing linguistic and communicative abilities. These tasks include form filling, word matching, image description, number–word association, simple math problem text completion, narrative reading with yes/no questions, regulatory text comprehension, descriptive writing, story understanding with narrative writing, and animal guessing from clues. Scores range from A1 (up to 14 points) to B1 (up to 54 points), with 54 as the highest possible score.

The Narrative Competence Task (NCT) [27] was used to assess children’s narrative skills after the intervention. The NCT is a standardized tool the analyzes narrative competencies in preschool and school-aged children via a storytelling task, with their narrative based on everyday experiences relevant to their age. The child’s narration, ideally audio- or video-recorded, is subsequently transcribed and evaluated on two levels: macrostructure (overall narrative abilities, that is: events, structure, agents, anaphoric use of the article, psychological lexicon) and microstructure (linguistic abilities, that is: total number of words used, mean length of utterance in words, dependent clauses).

5.2.2. RQ2. Evaluating Educational Inclusion

The Index for Inclusion [41,42] was employed to gather baseline data on educational inclusion. This tool includes sixty items across three dimensions: (a) culture, emphasizing community building and shared inclusive values; (b) policies, focusing on integrating inclusion in school management; and (c) practices, reflecting the application of inclusive culture and policies. It also features two open-ended questions. The items use an agreement scale ranging from “very much” (scored as 4 points) to “very little” (1 point), with an additional option of “need more information” (0 points), to gauge students’ perceptions of inclusivity in their school environment.

Observational rubrics were used for a detailed qualitative formative assessment of the intervention, targeting specific focal points for continuous evaluations. Each lesson had a specialized rubric focusing on inclusion and responsible technology use, comprising dimensions for objectives, indicators for elements to monitor, and observations for actual findings. Key objectives like group inclusion, active participation, conflict management, time and space management, respect, cooperation, collaboration, pair work, active listening, technology use, instruction comprehension, and engagement of students with language barriers were consistently monitored across rubrics. Other objectives were specific to activities like writing a self-introduction or a text about one’s culture.

5.3. Procedure

The intervention spanned approximately four months (February to May 2023), comprising eight lessons. These lessons, each under three hours, included creating digital stories, developing multimedia maps, and discussions on inclusion and diversity. The activities were designed to be engaging, with attention to students’ attention spans and need for clear tasks.

The intervention was integrated into the regular Italian language classes, ensuring it fit seamlessly into the curriculum without displacing other subjects. The teaching staff involved two regular classroom teachers, who alternated during the lessons, and a researcher–teacher (one of the co-authors of this article), who was part of the school’s teaching team for that academic year. Though the researcher–teacher was responsible for designing and overseeing the intervention, she was not considered an external participant, as she was officially part of the school’s faculty.

Before the intervention began, the researcher–teacher provided training to her two colleagues. This training covered the instructional strategies, the tools used to measure the outcomes of the intervention, and the technological resources needed for the digital storytelling activities. The training ensured that all teachers were fully prepared to guide the students and effectively implement the intervention.

Each lesson began with a brief introduction and concluded with feedback discussions. The main activities took place in the classroom, which was arranged to facilitate collaboration, while assessments were conducted in separate rooms. The first lesson introduced the project and administered the Italian language proficiency test, and the second lesson focused on administering the Index of Inclusion.

Subsequent lessons involved students researching and learning about each other’s cultures using tablets, inputting research into interactive web platforms like Genially, and writing self-introductions on Book Creator. Activities also included brainstorming on culture, creating self-portraits, and collaboratively deciding on the book’s title and sections. The NCT was conducted in the seventh lesson to assess narrative competence.

The final lesson involved a discussion reflecting on the project, with students expressing enthusiasm, particularly for using technology. Each student received a QR code and a printed link to access the project from home. Throughout, students worked independently and responsibly with tablets, creating two digital artifacts and contributing to a digital book titled The World in a Class. The process was documented and monitored, with observation rubrics measuring student interaction and response to the intervention.

6. Results

6.1. RQ1. Communicative Competence

6.1.1. Test for the Assessment of Reading/Listening and Writing Skills for Primary School

The results test of the Italian language proficiency test, as measured at the begin of the intervention, indicated a predominantly positive performance trend among the class group, with an average score of 41.25 (SD = 7.272; minimum = 17, maximum = 51.5). The central tendency values (mean score), dispersion (standard deviation), and range (min–max value) for each of the ten tasks, as well as for the total score, are presented in

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the Italian language proficiency test: central tendency, dispersion values, and range (min–max).

	M	SD	Range
Task 1	2	0	2–2
Task 2	3.96	0.213	3–4
Task 3	3.77	0.528	2–4
Task 4	4	0	4–4
Task 5	2.91	1.065	1–4
Task 6	3.82	0.501	2–4
Task 7	2.46	1.299	0–4
Task 8	5.25	2.182	0–8
Task 9	6.46	2.182	0–10.5
Task 10	6.64	2.321	0–10
TOT	41.25	7.272	17–51.5

.

Most students (16 out of 22) achieved a B1 level (total score: M = 44.56; SD = 3.387; range = 39–51.5), while a smaller group of 5 students performed at the A2+ level (total score: M = 35.5; SD = 1.541; range = 33.5–37.5). One student, with pronounced difficulties, performed at the A1+ level (total score: 17). Students at the A2+ level encountered challenges, particularly in tasks involving writing and comprehension. Among these students, four had documented learning disabilities, while one was a bilingual student with a migrant background. The A1+ student, also with a migrant background, showed significant challenges, especially in writing, and was unable to complete the comprehension tasks (Tasks 7–10).

These initial results reflect the linguistic diversity within the classroom, with proficiency levels ranging from B1 to A1+. The variation in performance, especially among students from migrant backgrounds, highlights the presence of different learning needs within the group.

6.1.2. Narrative Competence Task

The central tendency values (mean score), dispersion (standard deviation), and range (min–max value) for each of the macrostructural and microstructural narrative scores are presented in

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the Narrative Competence Task: central tendency, dispersion values, and range (min–max).

	M	SD	Range
Events	26.09	3.65	16–36
Structure	7.5	0.802	5–8
Agents	5.77	1.412	1–7
Anaphoric use of the article	4.36	1.433	0–7
Psychological lexicon	6.59	1.623	3–9
Tokens (produced words)	187.64	40.887	97–307
Mean length of utterance in words	13.3	3.385	5.4–18.2
Dependant clauses	11.36	2.937	2–17

.

The analysis of recorded and transcribed narratives revealed that students, particularly those at the B1 level, generally performed well across all dimensions of the NCT. However, an interesting and somewhat unexpected finding was that A2+ level students outperformed B1 students in certain aspects, such as events, anaphoric use of the article, produced words, and dependent clauses.

For example, one student with a migrant background from the A2+ group demonstrated strong performance in narrating events and using explicit subordinate clauses, despite facing challenges with the psychological lexicon and mean length of utterance, which resulted in simpler sentence structures. Conversely, the student at the A1+ level, while performing below average across most dimensions, was still able to produce a clear and basic narrative.

6.2. RQ2. Educational Inclusion

6.2.1. Index for Inclusion

The data from the Index for Inclusion revealed a generally high level of agreement among students with the statements provided, with an average score of 3.04 (SD = 0.3721; range = 2.25–3.63). The subgroup of five students at the A2+ level in the linguistic assessment achieved an average score similar to the overall class (M = 3.10; SD = 0.4132; range = 2.47–3.58). However, within this subgroup, the student with a migrant background reported a comparatively lower level of agreement (M = 2.47). Interestingly, the student with a migrant background who scored at the A1+ level in the Italian language test reported a higher level of agreement with the statements (M = 3.25), despite facing linguistic challenges.

These results suggest that, while most students perceived a high level of inclusion, there were variations, particularly among students from migrant backgrounds.

6.2.2. Qualitative Assessment through Observational Rubrics

The observational rubrics, which were applied during lessons three to six, revealed significant improvements in various classroom dynamics. These included active participation, inclusion of all students, conflict management, time and space utilization, respect, cooperation, collaboration, group work, active listening, technology use, and engagement of students with language barriers.

In terms of student engagement, the class consistently demonstrated active participation from the third to the sixth lesson. Students were fully involved in all activities, particularly during pair dialogues and group work. Students with language barriers also showed high levels of participation throughout, contributing to both verbal and artistic activities.

Time and space management improved progressively. Initially, students required more time than planned, but by the fifth and sixth lessons, they were completing tasks within the allotted time and making effective use of classroom space.

The use of technology improved steadily. While some students encountered challenges with tablets during the third lesson, by the sixth lesson, they were more confident and autonomous in using digital tools, especially in tasks involving interactive maps and digital book creation.

Finally, the intervention promoted respect for cultural diversity, with students showing interest in each other’s backgrounds and engaging in meaningful cultural exchanges during group activities.

7. Discussion

The findings of this study contribute to the ongoing discourse on multicultural education, particularly regarding the integration and support of students with migrant backgrounds in primary classrooms. The existing literature emphasizes the importance of inclusive practices in diverse educational settings [1,2], and this study aligns with these perspectives by demonstrating the efficacy of digital storytelling in improving linguistic and narrative competences within a culturally diverse classroom.

The discussion explores how the intervention supported both academic and social dimensions of inclusion. Through the enhancement of narrative competence, digital storytelling provided students, particularly those with linguistic barriers, a platform to express themselves beyond conventional language learning methods. The study also highlights the broader benefits of this approach, including increased engagement, improved time management, and the fostering of respect for cultural diversity. These results affirm the potential of educational technologies to create more inclusive and responsive learning environments that cater to the diverse needs of students.

The detailed discussions that follow address the two key research questions guiding this study: (1) How does digital storytelling impact the linguistic and narrative competences of students with migrant backgrounds? and (2) To what extent does the intervention foster a more inclusive classroom environment? In examining these questions, we also consider the broader implications of the intervention, including potential spillover effects on classroom dynamics and peer interactions, as well as the cost-effectiveness and practical applicability of integrating digital storytelling in diverse educational contexts. These considerations are crucial for understanding the scalability of such interventions in fostering both academic and social inclusion across multicultural classrooms.

7.1. Impact of Digital Storytelling on Linguistic and Narrative Competences (RQ1)

The results of the Italian language proficiency test generally align with the expectations outlined in H1. As anticipated, second-generation students, who were born and raised in Italy, demonstrated higher proficiency levels in Italian (B1), consistent with prior research suggesting that early and prolonged exposure to the host country’s language leads to better linguistic outcomes. The lower proficiency levels observed among recently immigrated students (A2+ or A1+), particularly those with additional learning challenges, were also in line with expectations. This aligns with studies that show that bilingual learners, especially those who arrived later or those with learning disabilities, often face greater difficulties in acquiring the dominant language.

The fact that four of the A2+ students had learning disabilities adds another layer of complexity to the results, as it indicates the dual challenge of managing both language acquisition and specific learning difficulties. The A1+ student’s performance, particularly their struggles in writing and inability to complete comprehension tasks, underscores the additional obstacles faced by recently arrived migrant students learning Italian as a second language. These findings are consistent with previous research on bilingualism and second language acquisition, which emphasizes the challenges faced by students with limited exposure to the host country’s language, particularly in academic contexts. The diverse range of proficiency levels within the classroom reflects the varying degrees of language exposure and the impact of factors such as migration and learning disabilities on language acquisition.

The results from the NCT provide nuanced insights into the relationship between language proficiency and narrative competence. As anticipated, B1 students generally performed well in the NCT, benefiting from their higher linguistic competence and broader exposure to the Italian language. However, the fact that some A2+ students outperformed B1 students in certain narrative tasks was unexpected, but aligns with existing research on bilingualism and narrative development.

Prior studies suggest that bilingual learners, particularly those from migrant backgrounds, often develop advanced cognitive and narrative strategies, allowing them to compensate for lower general language proficiency. This may explain why A2+ students excelled in areas such as events and dependent clauses, leveraging their bilingual experiences to organize their narratives more effectively. This observation highlights the potential for narrative competence to evolve independently of overall language proficiency, emphasizing the importance of considering cognitive flexibility and compensatory strategies when assessing bilingual students.

The A1+ student’s ability to produce a basic narrative despite significant linguistic challenges underscores the potential for growth in narrative skills even among students with lower proficiency levels. The diversity of performance among recently immigrated students reflects the complex interplay between language exposure, bilingualism, and the development of narrative competence. These findings suggest that students with migrant backgrounds, despite facing linguistic challenges, may possess unique strengths in narrative structure and organization, as noted in previous research.

7.2. Fostering an Inclusive Classroom Environment through Digital Storytelling (RQ2)

The results from the Index or Inclusion partially align with the expectations outlined prior to the intervention. As anticipated, the student at the A2+ level with a migrant background reported a comparatively lower sense of inclusion, likely due to language barriers and challenges with social integration. This is consistent with existing research that indicates that linguistic and cultural differences can impact perceptions of belonging, particularly among recently immigrated students.

However, the higher-than-expected agreement score from the A1+ student, who also had a migrant background, challenges these assumptions. Despite linguistic difficulties, this student reported a stronger sense of belonging, suggesting that other factors, such as classroom dynamics, individual resilience, or peer relationships, may play a significant role in shaping perceptions of inclusion. This finding highlights the complex and multifaceted nature of inclusion, where language proficiency alone does not fully determine a student’s sense of belonging.

These results underscore the importance of considering non-linguistic factors in fostering an inclusive classroom environment, particularly for students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The unexpected positive response from the A1+ student may indicate the effectiveness of peer support or inclusive teaching practices that go beyond language proficiency.

The qualitative findings from the observational rubrics highlight the effectiveness of the intervention in fostering not only academic, but also social and collaborative improvements within the classroom. The consistent active participation observed across lessons supports the idea that well-structured, inclusive activities can engage all students, regardless of linguistic barriers. This engagement is particularly notable among students with language difficulties, whose contributions—especially in artistic tasks—suggest that non-verbal forms of expression can play a crucial role in fostering their inclusion and sense of belonging.

The gradual improvement in time and space management demonstrates the value of repeated practice and structured support in helping students develop these organizational skills. The students’ growing ability to complete tasks on time and optimize classroom resources reflects their adaptation to the intervention’s demands, pointing to the benefits of consistent task structure in promoting self-regulation and efficiency.

The enhanced use of technology throughout the intervention shows how digital tools can be effectively integrated into classroom activities, even when students initially struggle. By the end of the intervention, students demonstrated significant progress in their ability to navigate and use digital platforms autonomously, which not only enriched their learning experience but also highlighted the importance of digital literacy in modern education.

The emphasis on cultural diversity and respect further illustrates the broader social impact of the intervention. The positive exchanges observed between students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds suggest that activities promoting mutual understanding can enhance classroom cohesion and cultural awareness. This is particularly relevant in multicultural classrooms, where fostering respect for diversity is key to creating an inclusive learning environment.

These qualitative findings underscore the multifaceted nature of inclusion, demonstrating that improvements in classroom dynamics, engagement, and respect for diversity can go hand in hand with the development of academic skills. By addressing both social and academic dimensions, the intervention successfully promoted a more cohesive, inclusive, and effective learning environment.

7.3. Spillover Effects

The intervention produced notable spillover effects that extended beyond the targeted goals of linguistic and narrative development. These effects were observed across both academic and social dimensions of the classroom environment. Qualitative assessments revealed widespread improvements in classroom dynamics, including enhanced cooperation, collaboration, and conflict management, which benefitted not only students with language barriers, but the entire class. These gains were reflected in the more effective use of time and space, with students showing greater organization and task completion efficiency over time.

Beyond individual engagement, the intervention fostered a deeper sense of inclusion and respect for diversity. As students worked together on digital storytelling projects, there was a marked increase in cross-cultural interactions, with students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds demonstrating a willingness to learn from one another. This suggests that the intervention not only promoted academic skill development, but also helped build stronger social bonds within the classroom, leading to a more cohesive learning environment.

The integration of technology played a crucial role in amplifying these effects. Although some students initially struggled with the digital tools, by the end of the intervention, they were navigating and using these resources more autonomously. This shift contributed to a broader enhancement of digital literacy across the class, offering long-term benefits for students’ overall academic engagement and future readiness for technology-based learning.

The spillover effects also touched on the role of the teacher and classroom management. Teacher-led group activities, supported by consistent use of technology, helped create a structured and supportive learning environment, enabling all students to benefit from the intervention. These broader impacts highlight the potential for digital storytelling not just as a targeted educational tool, but as a catalyst for improving classroom-wide dynamics, promoting inclusion, and fostering a learning community that values diversity.

7.4. Cost and Applicability of the Intervention

The digital storytelling intervention required minimal financial resources, making it accessible even to schools with limited budgets. The primary tools used in the intervention—digital devices such as tablets and laptops—were already available within the school, and no additional external equipment or software licenses were necessary. Teachers utilized free or low-cost digital storytelling platforms, ensuring that the intervention could be replicated in other low-resource educational institutions. The key resource was the time and effort invested by teachers in preparing and facilitating the sessions. Teacher training, which was part of routine professional development, focused on integrating culturally responsive teaching methods and using digital tools effectively.

Given the affordability of the resources involved and the flexibility of the approach, this intervention can be adopted by schools with fewer financial resources. It relies on existing digital infrastructure and emphasizes creativity and collaboration over high-cost technology, making it adaptable to various educational contexts, including those with budgetary constraints.

8. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study underscores the value of digital storytelling as a tool for enhancing inclusivity in multicultural classrooms. While it has demonstrated significant potential in bridging cultural and linguistic divides, there are limitations that warrant consideration. The study was constrained by its relatively short duration and the small, specific sample size, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the use of different tests for pre- and post-assessments, while methodologically sound, presents challenges in terms of directly comparing linguistic and narrative competencies.

Future research should aim to address these limitations by possibly extending the duration of similar interventions and involving a larger and more diverse sample. Longitudinal studies would also be beneficial to assess the lasting impacts of such educational interventions. Although this remains beyond the scope of the current study, observing the long-term effectiveness of digital storytelling in fostering sustained academic and social inclusion would be particularly valuable. Further exploration into the scalability of this approach and its long-term effects on students’ linguistic and cultural integration would provide deeper insights into its broader applicability in multicultural education.