Young Spanish Adults and Disinformation: Do They Identify and Spread Fake News and Are They Literate in It?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Literature Review
1.1.1. Concept: Fake News and Disinformation
1.1.2. Young Adults and Fake Information
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Sample Design
2.3. Questionnaire Design
2.4. Statistical Methods
3. Results
3.1. Literacy of Young Spanish Adults Regarding Fake News
3.2. Identification of Fake News
3.3. Dissemination of Fake News
4. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Fernández, N. Fake News: Una Oportunidad para la Alfabetización Mediática. 2017. Available online: https://nuso.org/articulo/fake-news-una-oportunidad-para-la-alfabetizacion-mediatica/ (accessed on 15 April 2020).
- Ipsos Public Affairs. Report Fakes News, Filter Bubbles, Post-Truth and Trust. 2018. Available online: https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2018-09/fake-news-filter-bubbles-post-truth-and-trust.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2020).
- Gartner. Garther Top Strategic Predictions for 2018 and Beyond. 2017. Available online: https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/gartner-top-strategic-predictions-for-2018-and-beyond/ (accessed on 5 August 2020).
- Catalina García, B.; García Jiménez, A.; Montes Vozmediano, M. Jóvenes y consumo de noticias a través de Internet y los medios sociales. Histor. Comunic. Soc. 2015, 2, 601–619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Digital New Reports. Digital New Report España 2020. 2020. Available online: https://www.digitalnewsreport.es/category/2020/ (accessed on 5 August 2020).
- Panda Security. La Mitad de los Españoles Recibe “Fake News” con Frecuencia. 2020. Available online: https://www.pandasecurity.com/es/mediacenter/mobile-news/espanoles-fake-news/ (accessed on 10 September 2020).
- Herrero-Díaz, P.; Conde-Jiménez, J.; Tapia-Frade, A.; Varona-Aramburu, D. The credibility of online news: An evaluation of the information by university students / La credibilidad de las noticias en Internet: Una evaluación de la información por estudiantes universitarios. Cult. Educ. 2019, 31, 407–435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vázquez-Herrero, J.; Vizoso, A.; López-García, X. Innovación tecnológica y comunicativa para combatir la desinformación: 135 experiencias para un cambio de rumbo. Prof. Inf. 2019, 28, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Palomo, B.; Sedano, J. WhatsApp como herramienta de verificación de fake news. El caso de B de Bulo. WhatsApp Herramienta Verif. Fake News. Caso B Bulo. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social. 2018, 73, 1384–1397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bernal-Triviño, A.; Clares-Gavilán, J. Uso del móvil y las redes sociales como canales de verificación de fake news. El caso de Maldita.es. Prof. Info. 2019, 28, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Katsaounidou, A.; Dimoulas, C.; Veglis, A. Cross-Media Authentication and verification: Emerging Research and Opportunities; Editorial IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Ruiz, M.U.; García, L.P.; Verdú, F.J.M. Fact checking: Un nuevo desafío del periodismo. Prof. Inf. 2018, 27, 733–741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blanco-Herrero, D.; Arcila-Calderón, C. Deontología y noticias falsas: Estudio de las percepciones de periodistas españoles. Prof. Inf. 2019, 28, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rubio-Moraga, A.L.; Dáder-García, J.L. El Futuro del Periodismo en Tiempos de Posverdad. In La Posverdad. Una Cartografía de los Medios, las Redes y la Política; Aparici, R., García-Marín, D., Eds.; Gedisa: Barcelona, Spain, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Wagner, M.C.; Boczkowski, P.J. The Reception of Fake News: The Interpretations and Practices That Shape the Consumption of Perceived Misinformation. Digit. J. 2019, 7, 870–885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alonso, M. Fakes news: Desinformación en la era de la sociedad de la información. Ámbitos 2019, 45, 29–52. [Google Scholar]
- White, A. Fake News: It’s Not Bad Journalism, It’s the Business of Digital Communications, Ethical Journalism Network. 2017. Available online: https://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/fake-news-bad-journalism-digital-age (accessed on 20 August 2020).
- Dictionary Cambridge. 2020. Available online: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/es/diccionario/ingles/fake-news (accessed on 20 August 2020).
- Amoros, M. Fake News: La Verdad de las Noticias Falsas; Editorial Plataforma: Barcelona, Spain, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Mendiguren, T.; DaSilva, J.P.; Meso-Ayerdi, K. Actitud ante las Fake News: Estudio del caso de los estudiantes de la Universidad del País Vasco. Rev. Común. 2020, 19, 171–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Edson, C.T., Jr.; Zheng, L.; Richard, L. Defining “Fake News”. Digit. J. 2018, 6, 137–153. [Google Scholar]
- Martens, B.; Aguiar, L.; Gomez-Herrera, E.; Mueller-Langer, F. The Digital Transformation of News Media and the Rise of Disinformation and Fake News; JCR Join Research Centre: Sevilla, Spain, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Rodríguez, C. Una reflexión sobre la epistemología del fact-cheking journalism: Retos y dilemas. Rev. Común. 2020, 19, 243–258. [Google Scholar]
- Rodríguez, C. No diga fake news, di desinformación: Una revisión sobre el fenómeno de las noticias falsas y sus implicaciones. Rev. Comun. 2019, 40, 65–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Comisión Europea. Unión Europea vs. Desinformación. 2019. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/spain/news/20191105_eu-vs-disinformation_es (accessed on 1 April 2020).
- Tuñon, J.; Bouza, L.; Carral, U. Comunicación Eurpea. ¿A Quién le Doy al Like para Hablar de Europa? Editorial Dickinson: Madrid, Spain, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Figueira, J.; Santos, S. Percepción de las noticias falsas en universitarios de Portugal: Análisis de su consumo y actitudes. Prof. Inf. 2019, 28, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sobral, F.; Salomé, N. Información falsa en la red: La perspectiva de un grupo de estudiantes universitarios de comunicación en Portugal. Prisma Soc. 2020, 29, 17–194. [Google Scholar]
- Carballo, W.; Marroquín, A. Alfabetización mediática y consumo noticioso entre jóvenes salvadoreños en tiempos digitales. ALCANCE Rev. Cubana Inf. Comun. 2020, 9, 144–155. [Google Scholar]
- Ranieri, M.; Di Stasio, M.; Bruni, I. Insegnare e apprendere sulle fake news. Uno studio esplorativo in contesto universitario. Media Educ. 2018, 9, 94–111. [Google Scholar]
- Pineda, H.; Jima-González, A.; Paradera, M.; García, C.; Parra, E.; Loaiza, K.; Areiza, S.; Ostina, T.; Agudelo, A.; Giraldo, S.; et al. ¿Preparados para las Fake News? Un estudio exploratorio de la comunidad universitaria del Tecnológico de Antioquia. En-Contexto 2019, 8, 1–39. [Google Scholar]
- Malaquías, A.; Lízbeth, L.; Pérez Rivera, D.; Rodolfo, O.; Villegas, M.C. Fake news y el impacto en jóvenes universitarios y de educación básica en relación con las redes sociales en Mexicali. 2019. Available online: https://www.academia.edu/40943073/Universidad_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_Baja_California (accessed on 20 May 2020).
- Institucional Repository of the University of Huelva. Conspiracy Theories and Disinformation in Andalusia Executive Report. 2019. Available online: http://rabida.uhu.es/dspace/bitstream/handle/10272/16291/Conspiracy%20Theories%20Disinformation%20in%20Andalusia_ExecutiveReport%202019.pdf?sequence=2 (accessed on 1 April 2020).
- Berganza, M.R.; Ruiz, J.A. Investigar en Comunicación: Guía Práctica de Métodos y Técnicas de Investigación Social en Comunicación; McGraw Hill: Madrid, Spain, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Hair, J.; Bush, R.; Ortinau, D. Investigación de Mercados en un Ambiente de Información Digital; Mc Graw Hill: Ciudad de México, Mexico, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Alwin, D.F. Margins of Error: A Study of Reliability in Survey Measurement; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Wimmer, R.; Dominick, J.R. Mass Media Research: An Introduction; Wadsworth: Boston, MA, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Digital New Reports. Digital New Report España 2018. 2018. Available online: https://www.digitalnewsreport.es/category/2018/ (accessed on 5 August 2020).
- Scolari, C. Estrategias de aprendizaje informal y competencias mediáticas enla nueva ecología de la comunicación. Telos 2016, 103, 1–9. [Google Scholar]
- Gelado-Marcos, R.; Puebla-Martínez, B. Estudio de los Factores Condicionantes de la Desinformación. Propuesta de Soluciones Contra su Impacto en Función de los Grados de Vulnerabilidad de los Grupos Analizados. 2019. Available online: https://laboratoriodeperiodismo.org/estudio-sobre-la-desinformacion/ (accessed on 10 June 2020).
- I Estudio Sobre las Fakes News en España. 2017. Available online: https://d3vjcwm65af87t.cloudfront.net/novacdn/EstudioPescanova.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2020).
- Guess, A.; Nagler, J.; Tucker, J.A. Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Sci. Adv. 2019, 5, eaau4586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Buckingham, D. Teaching media in a ‘post-truth’ age: Fake news, media bias and the challenge for media/digital literacy education / La enseñanza mediática en la era de la posverdad: Fake news, sesgo mediático y el reto para la educación en materia de alfabetización mediática y digital. Cult. Educ. 2019, 31, 213–231. [Google Scholar]
1 | One more interview in addition to the scheduled sample were carried out and were included. |
2 | First grade: No studies (incomplete primary studies); Primary school. Second grade: Secondary school up to 18 years (qualifications include the equivalent of UK GCSEs, A levels, BTECs). Third grade: Equivalent to Technical Engineer 3 years, University Schools, Technical Architects, Teaching, ATS, University Graduates 3-year course, Social Graduates, Social Workers, Bachelor, Master’s, Doctorate. |
3 | The article presents the total data by age and by educational level since they showed the greatest differences, although all the aforementioned segments were analysed and the most relevant data will be indicated where necessary. |
4 | (*) Insufficient sample base for calculating statistical differences. |
Spanish Population Distribution | Number of Predicted Interviews | Final Distribution | |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | |||
Male | 51% | 255 | 255 |
Female | 49% | 245 | 246 |
Age | |||
18 | 11% | 53 | 51 |
19 | 11% | 55 | 54 |
20 | 11% | 57 | 58 |
21 | 12% | 60 | 60 |
22 | 13% | 63 | 64 |
23 | 13% | 67 | 67 |
24 | 14% | 69 | 72 |
25 | 15% | 75 | 75 |
Region | |||
Northeast/Catalonia and Balearic Islands | 10 | 50 | 50 |
Levante | 15 | 75 | 75 |
South/Andalusia | 21 | 105 | 106 |
Central | 10 | 50 | 50 |
Northwest | 8 | 40 | 39 |
North central | 7 | 35 | 36 |
Canary Islands | 2 | 10 | 10 |
MAB (Metropolitan area of Barcelona) | 11 | 55 | 55 |
MAM (Metropolitan area of Madrid) | 16 | 80 | 80 |
Social class | |||
A1. High-high | 16 | 80 | 80 |
A2. High | 22 | 110 | 109 |
B. Medium-high | 16 | 80 | 81 |
C. Medium-medium | 23 | 115 | 120 |
D. Medium-low | 7 | 35 | 35 |
E1. Low | 13 | 65 | 65 |
E2. Low-low | 2 | 10 | 11 |
AGE | EDUCATION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 18 to 19 Years Old (A) | 20 to 22 Years Old (B) | 23 to 25 Years Old (C) | No Studies /First Grade (D *)4 | Second Grade (E) | Third Grade (F) | |
Total Individuals | 501 | 105 | 182 | 214 | 6 | 290 | 205 |
% | % | % | % | % | % | % | |
Very important | 33.1 | 28.6 | 34.6 | 34.1 | 16.7 | 30.0 | 38.0 |
Quite important | 43.7 | 40.0 | 44.5 | 44.9 | 66.7 | 43.1 | 43.9 |
Somewhat important | 17.8 | 24.8 | 15.9 | 15.9 | 0 | 21.4 | 13.2 |
Not very important | 4.2 | 4.8 | 3.8 | 4.2 | 16.7 | 4.1 | 3.9 |
Not important | 1.2 | 1.9 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 0 | 1.4 | 1.0 |
Top Two Box | 76.8 | 68.6 | 79.1 A | 79.0 A | 83.3 | 73.1 | 82.0 E |
Bottom Two Box | 5.4 | 6.7 | 4.9 | 5.1 | 16.7 | 5.5 | 4.9 |
AGE | EDUCATION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 18 to 19 Years Old (A) | 20 to 22 Years Old (B) | 23 to 25 Years Old (C) | No Studies/First Grade (D *) | Second Grade (E) | Third Grade (F) | |
Total Individuals | 501 | 105 | 182 | 214 | 6 | 290 | 205 |
% | % | % | % | % | % | % | |
I know of a program or course on how to check news because I have looked for one myself | 11.4 | 6.7 | 11.0 | 14.0 | 16.7 | 9.7 | 13.7 |
I know of a program or course on how to check news because I have been offered one | 12.4 | 15.2 | 13.2 | 10.3 | 16.7 | 10.7 | 14.6 |
I don’t know of any program or course | 76.2 | 78.1 | 75.8 | 75.7 | 66.7 | 79.7 F | 71.7 |
Total | |
---|---|
Individuals Aware of a Course | 119 |
% | |
Have taken a course | 23.5 |
Have not taken a course | 76.5 |
Total | |
---|---|
Individuals Who Have Taken a Course | 28 |
% | |
University | 46.4 |
Institute | 10.7 |
Other answers | 25 |
Do not know/Do not answer | 17.9 |
Total | |
---|---|
Individuals Who Have Taken a Course | 28 |
% | |
Free | 64.3 |
Paid by student, family, friends | 21.4 |
Grant | 3.6 |
A college or degree course subject | 10.7 |
AGE | EDUCATION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 18 to 19 Years Old (A *) | 20 to 22 Years Old (B) | 23 to 25 Years Old (C) | No Studies/First Grade (D *) | Second Grade (E) | Third Grade (F) | |
Individuals Who Know of Courses but Have Not Taken Any | 91 | 17 | 34 | 40 | 2 | 49 | 40 |
% | % | % | % | % | % | % | |
I’m not interested | 35.2 | 35.3 | 47.1 | 25.0 | 50.0 | 42.9 | 25.0 |
I don’t have time | 14.3 | 23.5 | 20.6 C | 5.0 | 0 | 16.3 | 12.5 |
I already know how to/I have a program | 14.3 | 5.9 | 14.7 | 17.5 | 0 | 14.3 | 15.0 |
I don’t have any money | 1.1 | 0 | 0 | 2.5 | 0 | 0 | 2.5 |
There are other faster and easier ways to verify the information | 8.8 | 0 | 5.9 | 15.0 | 0 | 4.1 | 15.0 |
The moment has not arisen | 9.9 | 11.8 | 2.9 | 15.0 | 50.0 | 8.2 | 10.0 |
I haven’t been offered a course | 2.2 | 0 | 0 | 5.0 | 0 | 2.0 | 2.5 |
I haven’t found one | 3.3 | 0 | 2.9 | 5.0 | 0 | 4.1 | 2.5 |
It wasn’t online | 1.1 | 5.9 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.0 | 0 |
Other answers/I do not attend courses | 1.1 | 0 | 2.9 | 0 | 0 | 2.0 | 0 |
Do not know/Do not answer | 5.5 | 11.8 | 2.9 | 5.0 | 0 | 6.1 | 5.0 |
Total | |
---|---|
Total Individuals | 501 |
% | |
To gain audience/more visits/more clicks/more followers | 17.0 |
Not knowing how to inform oneself/not knowing how to be critical of the information received/reader’s fault/not knowing how to compare | 13.8 |
To earn money | 10.8 |
To draw attention/gain fame | 11.8 |
Manipulate/Influence society | 10.8 |
Benefits, interests and convenience | 11.8 |
Social alarm/to frighten/fear | 6.6 |
Malign intentions/people are bad/jealousy | 4.0 |
Boredom | 3.0 |
Errors or intent of the journalist or the information publisher | 4.2 |
To do harm/to cause damage | 3.8 |
To deceive/cheat/lie | 3.6 |
Internet | 2.4 |
To obscure other news | 2.0 |
To generate controversy | 4.8 |
Morbidity | 2.0 |
Hatred | 1.4 |
To discredit | 1.4 |
For fun | 1.2 |
The reader spreads the information | 0.6 |
The reader wants to believe the information | 0.8 |
Other answers | 4.8 |
Do not know/Do not answer | 5.2 |
AGE | EDUCATION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 18 to 19 Years Old (A) | 20 to 22 Years Old (B) | 23 to 25 Years Old (C) | No Studies/First Grade (D *) | Second Grade (E) | Third Grade (F) | |
Total | 501 | 105 | 182 | 214 | 6 | 290 | 205 |
% | % | % | % | % | % | % | |
Very well | 12.8 | 8.6 | 14.3 | 13.6 | 0 | 11.0 | 15.6 |
Quite well | 46.7 | 41.9 | 46.2 | 49.5 | 0 | 42.8 | 53.7 E |
Somewhat well | 32.3 | 40.0 | 31.3 | 29.4 | 100.0 | 36.9 | 23.9 |
Not very well | 5.6 | 5.7 | 4.9 | 6.1 | 0 | 6.2 | 4.9 |
Not at all well | 2.6 | 3.8 | 3.3 | 1.4 | 0 | 3.1 | 2.0 |
Top Two Box | 59.5 | 50.5 | 60.5 | 63.1 | 0 | 53.8 | 69.3 |
Bottom Two Box | 8.2 | 9.5 | 8.2 | 7.5 | 0 | 9.3 | 6.8 |
AGE | EDUCATION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 18 to 19 Years Old (A) | 20 to 22 Years Old (B) | 23 to 25 Years Old (C) | No Studies/First Grade (D *) | Second Grade (E) | Third Grade (F) | |
Total Individuals | 501 | 105 | 182 | 214 | 6 | 290 | 205 |
% | % | % | % | % | % | % | |
If it generates social alarm | 43.7 | 37.1 | 44.0 | 46.7 | 16.7 | 40.7 | 48.8 |
If it comes from social networks like WhatsApp | 58.5 | 51.4 | 61.5 | 59.3 | 33.3 | 54.5 | 64.9 E |
If it has an eye-catching headline | 33.1 | 19.0 | 38.5 a | 35.5 A | 16.7 | 31.4 | 36.1 |
If the information is shocking | 28.9 | 22.9 | 26.9 | 33.6 A | 16.7 | 24.8 | 35.1 E |
If it’s incongruous, meaningless | 82.0 | 89.5 B | 78.0 | 81.8 | 66.7 | 81.0 | 83.9 |
Other answers | 8.2 | 4.8 | 9.3 | 8.9 | 16.7 | 7.9 | 8.3 |
AGE | EDUCATION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 18 to 19 Years Old (A) | 20 to 22 Years Old (B) | 23 to 25 Years Old (C) | No Studies/First Grade (D *) | Second Grade (E) | Third Grade (F) | |
Total Individuals | 501 | 105 | 182 | 214 | 6 | 290 | 205 |
% | % | % | % | % | % | % | |
Always | 39.5 | 36.2 | 39.0 | 41.6 | 16.7 | 39.7 | 40.0 |
Sometimes | 55.7 | 59.0 | 56.6 | 53.3 | 83.3 | 54.5 | 56.6 |
Never | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.4 | 5.1 | 0 | 5.9 | 3.4 |
AGE | EDUCATION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 18 to 19 Years Old (A) | 20 to 22 Years Old (B) | 23 to 25 Years Old (C) | No Studies/First Grade (D *) | Second Grade (E) | Third Grade (F) | |
Individuals Who Always or Sometimes Check the News | 477 | 100 | 174 | 203 | 6 | 273 | 198 |
% | % | % | % | % | % | % | |
I check it with family or friends | 49.7 | 60.0 C | 48.9 | 45.3 | 50.0 | 55.3 F | 41.9 |
I verify it on StopBulos, Maldita.es or similar websites | 40.7 | 31.0 | 41.4 | 44.8 A | 16.7 | 39.2 | 43.4 |
Other answers | 35.4 | 28.0 | 35.1 | 39.4 | 33.3 | 30.8 | 41.9 E |
Do not know/Do not answer | 0.8 | 0 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0 | 0.7 | 1.0 |
FACTORS | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
The Reputation of the Media Organization (A) | The Name of the Author of the News Item (B) | The Person or Entity That Sent the News Item (C) | The Sources Cited in the News Item (D) | The Date of Publication (E) | |
Total | 501 | 501 | 501 | 501 | 501 |
% | % | % | % | % | |
A lot | 35.9 BCE | 7.8 | 21.6 B | 31.9 BCE | 19.4 B |
Quite a lot | 39.3 B | 21.8 | 37.1 B | 34.3 B | 35.7 B |
Some | 18.8 | 33.9 AD | 29.7 AD | 23.4 | 30.9 AD |
Not very much | 3.2 | 23.6 ACDE | 8.0 A | 6.0 A | 9.6 AD |
None | 2.8 | 13.0 ACDE | 3.6 | 4.4 | 4.4 |
Top Two Boxes | 75.2 BCDE | 29.5 | 58.7 B | 66.3 BCE | 55.1 B |
Bottom Two Boxes | 6.0 | 36.5 ACDE | 11.6 A | 10.4 A | 14.0 A |
AGE | EDUCATION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 18 to 19 Years Old (A) | 20 to 22 Years Old (B) | 23 to 25 Years Old (C) | No Studies/First Grade (D *) | Second Grade (E) | Third Grade (F) | |
Total | 501 | 105 | 182 | 214 | 6 | 290 | 205 |
% | % | % | % | % | % | % | |
Have received fake news | 87.6 | 82.9 | 90.7 | 87.4 | 66.7 | 83.8 | 93.7 E |
Have spread fake news | 6.6 | 8.6 | 6.6 | 5.6 | 0 | 6.9 | 6.3 |
MOTIVES | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
I Enjoy It (A) | It’s an Excuse to Socialize with People (B) | I Do It Only When I’m Bored (C) | To Warn That It’s Fake News (D) | |
Individuals Who Have Knowingly Spread Fake News | 33 | 33 | 33 | 33 |
% | % | % | % | |
Always | 6.1 | 12.1 | 15.2 | 48.5 ABC |
Sometimes | 42.4 B | 15.2 | 24.2 | 42.4 B |
Never | 51.5 D | 72.7 D | 60.6 D | 9.1 |
Question 12 Encourage Verification | Question 13 Warn Sender It Is Fake | Question 14 Remove Fake News | |
---|---|---|---|
Total Individuals | 501 | 501 | 501 |
% | % | % | |
Always | 45.1 | 55.1 | 75.0 |
Sometimes | 34.9 | 36.7 | 19.4 |
Never | 20.0 | 8.2 | 5.6 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
de Vicente Domínguez, A.M.; Beriain Bañares, A.; Sierra Sánchez, J. Young Spanish Adults and Disinformation: Do They Identify and Spread Fake News and Are They Literate in It? Publications 2021, 9, 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9010002
de Vicente Domínguez AM, Beriain Bañares A, Sierra Sánchez J. Young Spanish Adults and Disinformation: Do They Identify and Spread Fake News and Are They Literate in It? Publications. 2021; 9(1):2. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9010002
Chicago/Turabian Stylede Vicente Domínguez, Aida María, Ana Beriain Bañares, and Javier Sierra Sánchez. 2021. "Young Spanish Adults and Disinformation: Do They Identify and Spread Fake News and Are They Literate in It?" Publications 9, no. 1: 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9010002
APA Stylede Vicente Domínguez, A. M., Beriain Bañares, A., & Sierra Sánchez, J. (2021). Young Spanish Adults and Disinformation: Do They Identify and Spread Fake News and Are They Literate in It? Publications, 9(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications9010002