Hydrology

25 pages, 11769 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Improving Operational Short- to Medium-Range (SR2MR) Streamflow Forecasts in the Upper Zambezi Basin and Its Sub-Basins Using Variational Ensemble Forecasting

by Rodrigo Valdés-Pineda, Juan B. Valdés, Sungwook Wi, Aleix Serrat-Capdevila and Tirthankar Roy

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040188 - 20 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3055

Abstract

The combination of Hydrological Models and high-resolution Satellite Precipitation Products (SPPs) or regional Climatological Models (RCMs), has provided the means to establish baselines for the quantification, propagation, and reduction in hydrological uncertainty when generating streamflow forecasts. This study aimed to improve operational real-time [...] Read more.

The combination of Hydrological Models and high-resolution Satellite Precipitation Products (SPPs) or regional Climatological Models (RCMs), has provided the means to establish baselines for the quantification, propagation, and reduction in hydrological uncertainty when generating streamflow forecasts. This study aimed to improve operational real-time streamflow forecasts for the Upper Zambezi River Basin (UZRB), in Africa, utilizing the novel Variational Ensemble Forecasting (VEF) approach. In this regard, we describe and discuss the main steps required to implement, calibrate, and validate an operational hydrologic forecasting system (HFS) using VEF and Hydrologic Processing Strategies (HPS). The operational HFS was constructed to monitor daily streamflow and forecast them up to eight days in the future. The forecasting process called short- to medium-range (SR2MR) streamflow forecasting was implemented using real-time rainfall data from three Satellite Precipitation Products or SPPs (The real-time TRMM Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis TMPA-RT, the NOAA CPC Morphing Technique CMORPH, and the Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed data using Artificial Neural Networks, PERSIANN) and rainfall forecasts from the Global Forecasting System (GFS). The hydrologic preprocessing (HPR) strategy considered using all raw and bias corrected rainfall estimates to calibrate three distributed hydrological models (HYMOD_DS, HBV_DS, and VIC 4.2.b). The hydrologic processing (HP) strategy considered using all optimal parameter sets estimated during the calibration process to increase the number of ensembles available for operational forecasting. Finally, inference-based approaches were evaluated during the application of a hydrological postprocessing (HPP) strategy. The final evaluation and reduction in uncertainty from multiple sources, i.e., multiple precipitation products, hydrologic models, and optimal parameter sets, was significantly achieved through a fully operational implementation of VEF combined with several HPS. Finally, the main challenges and opportunities associated with operational SR2MR streamflow forecasting using VEF are evaluated and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Flow Modeling for Water Resources and Hydrological Engineering)

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17 pages, 9924 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Improving Hillslope Link Model Performance from Non-Linear Representation of Natural and Artificially Drained Subsurface Flows

by Nicolás Velásquez, Ricardo Mantilla, Witold Krajewski, Morgan Fonley and Felipe Quintero

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040187 - 20 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2791

Abstract

This study evaluates the potential for a newly proposed non-linear subsurface flux equation to improve the performance of the hydrological Hillslope Link Model (HLM). The equation contains parameters that are functionally related to the hillslope steepness and the presence of tile drainage. As [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the potential for a newly proposed non-linear subsurface flux equation to improve the performance of the hydrological Hillslope Link Model (HLM). The equation contains parameters that are functionally related to the hillslope steepness and the presence of tile drainage. As a result, the equation provides better representation of hydrograph recession curves, hydrograph timing, and total runoff volume. The authors explore the new parameterization’s potential by comparing a set of diagnostic and prognostic setups in HLM. In the diagnostic approach, they configure 12 different scenarios with spatially uniform parameters over the state of Iowa. In the prognostic case, they use information from topographical maps and known locations of tile drainage to distribute parameter values. To assess performance improvements, they compare simulation results to streamflow observations during a 17-year period (2002–2018) at 140 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) gauging stations. The operational setup of the HLM model used at the Iowa Flood Center (IFC) serves as a benchmark to quantify the overall improvement of the model. In particular, the new equation provides better representation of recession curves and the total streamflow volumes. However, when comparing the diagnostic and prognostic setups, the authors found discrepancies in the spatial distribution of hillslope scale parameters. The results suggest that more work is required when using maps of physical attributes to parameterize hydrological models. The findings also demonstrate that the diagnostic approach is a useful strategy to evaluate models and assess changes in their formulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Flow Modeling for Water Resources and Hydrological Engineering)

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13 pages, 3050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Hydraulic Analysis of Shock Wave Generation Mechanism on Flat Spillway Chutes through Physical Modeling

by Muhammad Kaleem Sarwar, Muhammad Atiq Ur Rehman Tariq, Rashid Farooq, Hafiz Kamran Jaleel Abbasi, Faraz Ul Haq, Ijaz Ahmad, Muhammad Izhar Shah, Anne. W. M. Ng and Nitin Muttil

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040186 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2873

Abstract

Shock waves are generated downstream of spillways during flood operations, which have adverse effects on spillway operations. This paper presents the physical model study of shock waves at the Mohmand Dam Spillway project, Pakistan. In this study, hydraulic analysis of shock waves was [...] Read more.

Shock waves are generated downstream of spillways during flood operations, which have adverse effects on spillway operations. This paper presents the physical model study of shock waves at the Mohmand Dam Spillway project, Pakistan. In this study, hydraulic analysis of shock waves was carried out to investigate its generation mechanism. Different experiments were performed to analyze the rooster tail on a flat spillway chute and to examine the factors affecting the characteristics of the rooster tail. The study results show that shock wave height is influenced by spillway chute slope, pier shape, and flow depth. Moreover, the height of the shock wave can be minimized by installing a semi-elliptical pier on the tail part of the main pier. Further modifications in the geometry of the extended tail part of the pier are recommended for the elimination of the shock wave. Based on observed data collected from the model study, an empirical equation was developed to estimate the shock wave height generated on the flat slope spillway chutes (5° to 10°). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Flow Modeling for Water Resources and Hydrological Engineering)

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9 pages, 1808 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

WFD Ecological Quality Indicators Are Poorly Correlated with Water Levels in River Catchments in Tuscany (Italy)

by Chiara Arrighi, Isabella Bonamini, Cristina Simoncini, Stefano Bartalesi and Fabio Castelli

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040185 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2455

Abstract

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires European countries to achieve a good ecological status of surface water bodies and demands that River District Authorities define ecological flows consistently. Nevertheless, the relationship between ecological and hydrological indicators is not fully understood and not straightforward [...] Read more.

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires European countries to achieve a good ecological status of surface water bodies and demands that River District Authorities define ecological flows consistently. Nevertheless, the relationship between ecological and hydrological indicators is not fully understood and not straightforward to apply because ecological and hydrological indicators are monitored by different institutions, with different timings and purposes. This work examines the correlation between a set of ecological indicators monitored by environmental agencies (STAR-ICMi, LIMeco, IBMR, and TDI) and water levels with assigned durations monitored by the hydrologic service in Tuscany (central Italy). Reference water levels are derived from stage-duration curves obtained by the statistical analysis of daily levels in the same year of ecological sampling. The two datasets are paired through a geospatial association for the same river reach and the correlation is measured through Pearson’s r. The results show poor correlation (r between −0.33 and −0.42) between ecological indicators and hydrologic variables, confirming the findings observed in other Italian catchments with different hydrologic regimes, climate, and anthropogenic pressures. Nevertheless, the negative correlations show a decreasing water quality with water depths, i.e., in the lower part of the catchments more affected by anthropogenic pressures. These findings suggests that the determination of ecological flows with a purely hydrological approach is not sufficient for achieving WFD objectives in the study area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Ecosystems and Water Resources)

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17 pages, 3104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Groundwater Resources for Municipal Water Use in a Data-Scarce Region

by Iolanda Borzì and Brunella Bonaccorso

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040184 - 16 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2933

Abstract

Groundwater is a major source of drinking water worldwide, often considered more reliable than surface water and more accessible. Nowadays, there is wide recognition by the scientific community that groundwater resources are under threat from overexploitation and pollution. Furthermore, frequent and prolonged drought [...] Read more.

Groundwater is a major source of drinking water worldwide, often considered more reliable than surface water and more accessible. Nowadays, there is wide recognition by the scientific community that groundwater resources are under threat from overexploitation and pollution. Furthermore, frequent and prolonged drought periods due to climate change can seriously affect groundwater recharge. For an appropriate and sustainable management of water systems supplied by springs and/or groundwater withdrawn from aquifers through drilling wells or drainage galleries, the need arises to properly quantify groundwater resources availability, mainly at the monthly scale, as groundwater recharge is influenced by seasonality, especially in the Mediterranean areas. Such evaluation is particularly important for ungauged groundwater bodies. This is the case of the aquifer supplying the Santissima Aqueduct, the oldest water supply infrastructure of the city of Messina in Sicily (Southern Italy), whose groundwater flows are measured only occasionally through spring water sampling at the water abstraction plants. Moreover, these plants are barely maintained because they are difficult to reach. In this study, groundwater recharge assessment for the Santissima Aqueduct is carried out through a GIS-based inverse hydrogeological balance methodology. Although this approach was originally designed to assess aquifer recharge at the annual scale, wherever a model conceptualization of the groundwater system was hindered by the lack of data, in the present study some changes are proposed to adjust the model to the monthly scale. In particular, the procedure for evapotranspiration assessment is based on the Global Aridity Index within the Budyko framework. The application of the proposed methodology shows satisfactory results, suggesting that it can be successfully applied for groundwater resources estimation in a context where monthly information is relevant for water resources planning and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Water Balance)

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20 pages, 2557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flood Early Warning Systems Using Machine Learning Techniques: The Case of the Tomebamba Catchment at the Southern Andes of Ecuador

by Paul Muñoz, Johanna Orellana-Alvear, Jörg Bendix, Jan Feyen and Rolando Célleri

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040183 - 16 Dec 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6460

Abstract

Worldwide, machine learning (ML) is increasingly being used for developing flood early warning systems (FEWSs). However, previous studies have not focused on establishing a methodology for determining the most efficient ML technique. We assessed FEWSs with three river states, No-alert, Pre-alert and [...] Read more.

Worldwide, machine learning (ML) is increasingly being used for developing flood early warning systems (FEWSs). However, previous studies have not focused on establishing a methodology for determining the most efficient ML technique. We assessed FEWSs with three river states, No-alert, Pre-alert and Alert for flooding, for lead times between 1 to 12 h using the most common ML techniques, such as multi-layer perceptron (MLP), logistic regression (LR), K-nearest neighbors (KNN), naive Bayes (NB), and random forest (RF). The Tomebamba catchment in the tropical Andes of Ecuador was selected as a case study. For all lead times, MLP models achieve the highest performance followed by LR, with f1-macro (log-loss) scores of 0.82 (0.09) and 0.46 (0.20) for the 1 h and 12 h cases, respectively. The ranking was highly variable for the remaining ML techniques. According to the g-mean, LR models correctly forecast and show more stability at all states, while the MLP models perform better in the Pre-alert and Alert states. The proposed methodology for selecting the optimal ML technique for a FEWS can be extrapolated to other case studies. Future efforts are recommended to enhance the input data representation and develop communication applications to boost the awareness of society of floods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flood Early Warning and Risk Modelling)

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18 pages, 5905 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Multivariate Analysis and Machine Learning Approach for Mapping the Variability and Vulnerability of Urban Flooding: The Case of Tangier City, Morocco

by Tarik Bouramtane, Ilias Kacimi, Khalil Bouramtane, Maryam Aziz, Shiny Abraham, Khalid Omari, Vincent Valles, Marc Leblanc, Nadia Kassou, Omar El Beqqali, Tarik Bahaj, Moad Morarech, Suzanne Yameogo and Laurent Barbiero

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040182 - 16 Dec 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3951

Abstract

Urban flooding is a complex natural hazard, driven by the interaction between several parameters related to urban development in a context of climate change, which makes it highly variable in space and time and challenging to predict. In this study, we apply a [...] Read more.

Urban flooding is a complex natural hazard, driven by the interaction between several parameters related to urban development in a context of climate change, which makes it highly variable in space and time and challenging to predict. In this study, we apply a multivariate analysis method (PCA) and four machine learning algorithms to investigate and map the variability and vulnerability of urban floods in the city of Tangier, northern Morocco. Thirteen parameters that could potentially affect urban flooding were selected and divided into two categories: geo-environmental parameters and socio-economic parameters. PCA processing allowed identifying and classifying six principal components (PCs), totaling 73% of the initial information. The scores of the parameters on the PCs and the spatial distribution of the PCs allow to highlight the interconnection between the topographic properties and urban characteristics (population density and building density) as the main source of variability of flooding, followed by the relationship between the drainage (drainage density and distance to channels) and urban properties. All four machine learning algorithms show excellent performance in predicting urban flood vulnerability (ROC curve > 0.9). The Classifications and Regression Tree and Support Vector Machine models show the best prediction performance (ACC = 91.6%). Urban flood vulnerability maps highlight, on the one hand, low lands with a high drainage density and recent buildings, and on the other, higher, steep-sloping areas with old buildings and a high population density, as areas of high to very-high vulnerability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology–Climate Interactions)

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15 pages, 7360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Saltwater Submergence on Geohydraulic Properties of Sand: A Laboratory Investigation

by Sudip Basack, Ghritartha Goswami, Sumanpran Sonowal and Moses Karakouzian

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040181 - 8 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2752

Abstract

Saline water intrusion into freshwater aquifers is a major geohydraulic problem relevant to coastal environment. Apart from contaminating the fresh groundwater resources, the saltwater intrusion alters the geotechnical properties of the aquifer materials, affecting the coastal water resource planning and management. The present [...] Read more.

Saline water intrusion into freshwater aquifers is a major geohydraulic problem relevant to coastal environment. Apart from contaminating the fresh groundwater resources, the saltwater intrusion alters the geotechnical properties of the aquifer materials, affecting the coastal water resource planning and management. The present study focuses on an in-depth laboratory investigation of the influence of saltwater submergence on the geohydraulic properties of sand. The fine sand sample was submerged under saline water of specified concentrations for specific periods, and the alteration in their engineering properties has been studied. It is observed that the specific gravity, dry density, and permeability of fine sand is significantly affected by the period of submergence and saline concentration. The specific gravity of sand particles was observed to increase almost linearly with period of submergence and saline concentration. While the sand dry density decreased fairly linearly with the period of submergence, the same is not being affected significantly by saline concentration. The permeability of sand increased nonlinearly with both period of submergence and saline concentration; for a submergence period of 14 days and saline concentration of 30,000 ppm, the permeability increased to a maximum value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Marine Environment and Hydrology Interactions)

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18 pages, 8027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Splash Erosion on Terraces, Does It Make a Difference If the Terracing Is Done before or after a Fire?

by María Fernández-Raga, Martinho A. S. Martins, Elena Marcos Porras, Roberto Fraile and Jan Jacob Keizer

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040180 - 8 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2266

Abstract

Terraces are a common Mediterranean feature influencing soils, slopes and subsurface hydrology; however, little is known about their impact on erosion processes, especially in humid regions. The purpose of this study was to assess how terracing after a fire affected erosion processes such [...] Read more.

Terraces are a common Mediterranean feature influencing soils, slopes and subsurface hydrology; however, little is known about their impact on erosion processes, especially in humid regions. The purpose of this study was to assess how terracing after a fire affected erosion processes such as splash erosion. For 8 months, the study monitored splash erosion in three terraced plots, one plot under pre-fire conditions and the other two under post-fire conditions. Assessment of the impact of the terracing treatment in such plots was carried out by the installation of two different splash erosion quantitative systems: cups and funnels. An analysis of the splash data obtained in 17 rainfall events and meteorological data collected during each one of those periods was then performed. A significant positive correlation between the amount of rainfall and the splash erosion was observed. The two splash sampling systems show a high degree of concordance; however, the funnel-type model seems to be the most appropriate when it comes to preventing loss of splashed soil samples. The post-fire treatment with terracing leads to a smaller stability of surface soil aggregates, causing higher splash erosion rates. Sampling using the funnel system collects three times the amount of splashed soil than that collected by the cup system, although both systems correlate appropriately with the meteorological parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Hydrology)

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Graphical abstract

22 pages, 4343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvements in Sub-Catchment Fractional Snowpack and Snowmelt Parameterizations and Hydrologic Modeling for Climate Change Assessments in the Western Himalayas

by Vishal Singh and Francisco Muñoz-Arriola

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040179 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2725

Abstract

The present work proposes to improve estimates of snowpack and snowmelt and their assessment in the steep Himalayan ranges at the sub-catchment scale. Temporal variability of streamflow and the associated distribution of accumulated snow in catchments with glacier presence in the Himalayas illustrates [...] Read more.

The present work proposes to improve estimates of snowpack and snowmelt and their assessment in the steep Himalayan ranges at the sub-catchment scale. Temporal variability of streamflow and the associated distribution of accumulated snow in catchments with glacier presence in the Himalayas illustrates how changes in snowpack and snowmelt can affect the water supply for local water management. The primary objective of this study is to assess the role of elevation, temperature lapse rate (TLR), and precipitation lapse rate (PLR) in the computation of snowpack (or snowfall) and snowmelt in sub-catchments of the Satluj River basin. Modeling of snowpack and snowmelt was constructed using the Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) in both historical (1991–2008) and near-time scenarios (2011–2030) by implementing real-time hydrometeorological, snow-hydrological parameters, and Global Circulation Model (GCM) datasets. The modeled snowmelt-induced streamflow showed a good agreement with the observed streamflow (~60%), calibrated and validated at three gauges. A Sequential Uncertainty Parameter Fitting (SUFI2) method (SUFI2) resulted that the curve number (CN2) was found to be significantly sensitive during calibration. The snowmelt hydrological parameters such as snowmelt factor maximum (SMFMX) and snow coverage (SNO50COV) significantly affected objective functions, such as R2 and NSE, during the model optimization. For the validation of snowpack and snowmelt, the results have been contrasted with previous studies and found comparable. The computed snowpack and snowmelt were found highly variable over the Himalayan sub-catchments, as also reported by previous researchers. The magnitude of snowpack change consistently decreases across all the sub-catchments of the Satluj river catchment (varying between 4% and 42%). The highest percentage of changes in the snowpack was observed over high-elevation sub-catchments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology–Climate Interactions)

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17 pages, 5468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Spatial and Temporal Groundwater Balance Components in Khadir Canal Sub-Division, Chaj Doab, Pakistan

by Muhammad Aslam, Ali Salem, Vijay P. Singh and Muhammad Arshad

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040178 - 4 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2903

Abstract

Evaluation of the spatial and temporal distribution of water balance components is required for efficient and sustainable management of groundwater resources, especially in semi-arid and data-poor areas. The Khadir canal sub-division, Chaj Doab, Pakistan, is a semi-arid area which has shallow aquifers which [...] Read more.

Evaluation of the spatial and temporal distribution of water balance components is required for efficient and sustainable management of groundwater resources, especially in semi-arid and data-poor areas. The Khadir canal sub-division, Chaj Doab, Pakistan, is a semi-arid area which has shallow aquifers which are being pumped by a plethora of wells with no effective monitoring. This study employed a monthly water balance model (water and energy transfer among soil, plants, and atmosphere)—WetSpass-M—to determine the groundwater balance components on annual, seasonal, and monthly time scales for a period of the last 20 years (2000–2019) in the Khadir canal sub-division. The spatial distribution of water balance components depends on soil texture, land use, groundwater level, slope, and meteorological conditions. Inputs for the model included data on topography, slope, soil, groundwater depth, slope, land use, and meteorological data (e.g., precipitation, air temperature, potential evapotranspiration, and wind speed) which were prepared using ArcGIS. The long-term average annual rainfall (455.7 mm) is distributed as 231 mm (51%) evapotranspiration, 109.1 mm (24%) surface runoff, and 115.6 mm (25%) groundwater recharge. About 51% of groundwater recharge occurs in summer, 18% in autumn, 14% in winter, and 17% in spring. Results showed that the WetSpass-M model properly simulated the water balance components of the Khadir canal sub-division. The WetSpass-M model’s findings can be used to develop a regional groundwater model for simulation of different aquifer management scenarios in the Khadir area, Pakistan. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Hydrological and Hydrodynamic Processes and Modelling)

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14 pages, 3128 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Stochastic Analysis of Hourly to Monthly Potential Evapotranspiration with a Focus on the Long-Range Dependence and Application with Reanalysis and Ground-Station Data

by Panayiotis Dimitriadis, Aristoteles Tegos and Demetris Koutsoyiannis

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040177 - 1 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3006

Abstract

The stochastic structures of potential evaporation and evapotranspiration (PEV and PET or ETo) are analyzed using the ERA5 hourly reanalysis data and the Penman–Monteith model applied to the well-known CIMIS network. The latter includes high-quality ground meteorological samples with long lengths and simultaneous [...] Read more.

The stochastic structures of potential evaporation and evapotranspiration (PEV and PET or ETo) are analyzed using the ERA5 hourly reanalysis data and the Penman–Monteith model applied to the well-known CIMIS network. The latter includes high-quality ground meteorological samples with long lengths and simultaneous measurements of monthly incoming shortwave radiation, temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed. It is found that both the PEV and PET processes exhibit a moderate long-range dependence structure with a Hurst parameter of 0.64 and 0.69, respectively. Additionally, it is noted that their marginal structures are found to be light-tailed when estimated through the Pareto–Burr–Feller distribution function. Both results are consistent with the global-scale hydrological-cycle path, determined by all the above variables and rainfall, in terms of the marginal and dependence structures. Finally, it is discussed how the existence of, even moderate, long-range dependence can increase the variability and uncertainty of both processes and, thus, limit their predictability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Evaporation and Evaporative Demand)

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25 pages, 10844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Riparian Vegetation Density Mapping of an Extremely Densely Vegetated Confined Floodplain

by István Fehérváry and Tímea Kiss

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040176 - 30 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3270

Abstract

The most crucial function of lowland-confined floodplains with low slopes is to support flood conveyance and fasten floods; however, obstacles can hinder it. The management of riparian vegetation is often neglected, though woody species increase the vegetation roughness of floodplains and increase flood [...] Read more.

The most crucial function of lowland-confined floodplains with low slopes is to support flood conveyance and fasten floods; however, obstacles can hinder it. The management of riparian vegetation is often neglected, though woody species increase the vegetation roughness of floodplains and increase flood levels. The aims are (1) to determine the branch density of various riparian vegetation types in the flood conveyance zone up to the level of artificial levees (up to 5 m), and (2) to assess the spatial distribution of densely vegetated patches. Applying a decision tree and machine learning, six vegetation types were identified with an accuracy of 83%. The vegetation density was determined within each type by applying the normalized relative point density (NRD) method. Besides, vegetation density was calculated in each submerged vegetation zone (1–2 m, 2–3 m, etc.). Thus, the obstacles for floods with various frequencies were mapped. In the study area, young poplar plantations offer the most favorable flood conveyance conditions, whereas invasive Amorpha thickets and the dense stands of native willow forests provide the worst conditions for flood conveyance. Dense and very dense vegetation patches are common in all submerged vegetation zones; thus, vegetation could heavily influence floods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecohydrology)

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16 pages, 2825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling a Severe Transient Anoxia of Continental Freshwaters Due to a Scheldt Accidental Release (Sugar Industry)

by Aline Grard, Etienne Everbecq, Pol Magermans and Jean-François Deliège

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040175 - 28 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2234

Abstract

Most anthropogenic pollution can be controlled, such as domestic and industrial releases, loads from agriculture, etc. However, some of them, which are associated to illegal discharges, industrial accidents, etc., are more difficult to forecast. This study was performed on the Tereos sugar industry [...] Read more.

Most anthropogenic pollution can be controlled, such as domestic and industrial releases, loads from agriculture, etc. However, some of them, which are associated to illegal discharges, industrial accidents, etc., are more difficult to forecast. This study was performed on the Tereos sugar industry accident that occurred during the night of 9 April 2020, when 88,000 cubic meters of effluents loaded with organic matter discharged in the Scheldt River (a 350 km long transnational river that flows through Northern France and Western Belgium). The accident had dramatic consequences on the receiving watercourse, over 120 km downstream. Fish mortalities have been observed and severe deoxygenation, reaching zero concentration in dissolved oxygen, have impacted river chemical quality. The objective was to understand and describe the dynamics of the chemical pollution and its propagation along the transboundary hydrographic network of the Scheldt. A method based on the processes of organic matter degradation in the river ecosystem was enhanced. It is demonstrated that the accident is doubtless the cause of the water column deoxygenation. This paper shows how the water quality modelling can help to understand and therefore to prevent the consequences of accidental pollution on a river network. Full article

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27 pages, 7286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrological System of the Plitvice Lakes—Trends and Changes in Water Levels, Inflows, and Losses

by Maja Radišić, Josip Rubinić, Igor Ružić and Andrijana Brozinčević

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040174 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3179

Abstract

The Plitvice Lakes National Park is inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List. The lake system is composed of 16 cascading lakes of different sizes separated by tufa barriers, which are the park’s key phenomenon. The lakes are characterized by highly diverse trends of [...] Read more.

The Plitvice Lakes National Park is inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List. The lake system is composed of 16 cascading lakes of different sizes separated by tufa barriers, which are the park’s key phenomenon. The lakes are characterized by highly diverse trends of the characteristic hydrological indicators—mean annual water levels, discharges, and tufa barrier growth. The analyses carried out in this paper identified that in the period before the early 1990s, Kozjak Lake had a trend of decreasing discharges, together with a trend of increasing water levels and growing tufa barriers. In contrast to this, in the period after 2001, a trend of increasing discharges was recorded, as well as a trend of decreasing water levels and decreasing tufa barriers. A potential cause of the barriers decreasing in size were the extremely high discharges during the last decade, which resulted in increased erosion of the tufa barriers. Losses of water due to the sinking from the lake system as well as the upper Korana course were confirmed, and it was identified that during the analyzed period the losses had not changed significantly. It was determined that the losses of water from Kozjak Lake occurred during low-water periods; however, they depended not only on the quantity of water flowing through the lakes but also on the hydrological conditions underground. The analyses carried out and the methodological procedures used in the analyzed area of the Plitvice Lakes are useful examples for the performance of analyses at similar lakes in karst formed by tufa deposition processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydro-Geology of Karst Areas)

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16 pages, 3327 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Role of Bedload Transport in the Development of a Proglacial River Alluvial Fan (Case Study: Scott River, Southwest Svalbard)

by Waldemar Kociuba

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040173 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2651

Abstract

This study, which was conducted between 2010 and 2013, presents the results of direct, continuous measurements of the bedload transport rate at the mouth section of the Scott River catchment (NW part of Wedel-Jarlsberg Land, Svalbard). In four consecutive melt seasons, the bedload [...] Read more.

This study, which was conducted between 2010 and 2013, presents the results of direct, continuous measurements of the bedload transport rate at the mouth section of the Scott River catchment (NW part of Wedel-Jarlsberg Land, Svalbard). In four consecutive melt seasons, the bedload flux was analyzed at two cross-sections located in the lower reaches of the gravel-bed proglacial river. The transported bedload was measured using two sets of River Bedload Traps (RBTs). Over the course of 130 simultaneous measurement days, a total of 930 bedload samples were collected. During this period, the river discharged about 1.32 t of bedload through cross-section I (XS I), located at the foot of the alluvial fan, and 0.99 t through cross-section II (XS II), located at the river mouth running into the fjord. A comparison of the bedload flux showed a distinctive disproportion between cross-sections. Specifically, the average daily bedload flux Q_B was 130 kg day⁻¹ (XS I) and 81 kg day⁻¹ (XS II) at the individual cross-profiles. The lower bedload fluxes that were recorded at specified periods in XS II, which closed the catchment at the river mouth from the alluvial cone, indicated an active role of aggradation processes. Approximately 40% of all transported bedload was stored at the alluvial fan, mostly in the active channel zone. However, comparative Geomorphic Change Detection (GCD) analyses of the alluvial fan, which were performed over the period between August 2010 and August 2013, indicated a general lowering of the surface (erosion). It can be assumed that the melt season’s average flows in the active channel zone led to a greater deposition of bedload particles than what was discharged with high intensity during floods (especially the bankfull stage, effectively reshaping the whole surface of the alluvial fan). This study documents that the intensity of bedload flux was determined by the frequency of floods. Notably, the highest daily rates recorded in successive seasons accounted for 12–30% of the total bedload flux. Lastly, the multi-seasonal analysis showed a high spatio-temporal variability of the bedload transport rates, which resulted in changes not only in the channel but also on the entire surface of the alluvial fan morphology during floods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Observations in Water Resources)

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21 pages, 3303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Hydrological Regime Monitoring of a Mediterranean Agro-Ecological Wetland Using Landsat Imagery: Correlation with the Water Renewal Rate of a Shallow Lake

by Lucía Vera-Herrera, Juan Soria, Javier Pérez and Susana Romo

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040172 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3027

Abstract

The Natural Park of Albufera (Valencia, Spain) is one of the Spanish Mediterranean wetlands where rice is cultivated intensively. The hydrology of the Albufera Lake, located in the center, combines natural contributions with complex human management. The aim of our study was to [...] Read more.

The Natural Park of Albufera (Valencia, Spain) is one of the Spanish Mediterranean wetlands where rice is cultivated intensively. The hydrology of the Albufera Lake, located in the center, combines natural contributions with complex human management. The aim of our study was to develop a new methodology to accurately detect the volume of flood water in complex natural environments which experience significant seasonal changes due to climate and agriculture. The study included 132 Landsat images, covering a 15-year period. The algorithm was adjusted using the NDWI index and simultaneous measurements of water levels in the rice fields. The NDVI index was applied to monitor the cultivated area during the summer. Lake inflows and residence times were also evaluated to quantify how the hydrodynamic of the lake is conditioned by the agricultural management. The algorithm developed is confirmed as a useful ecological tool to monitor the flood cycle of the wetland, being able to detect even the lowest water levels. The flood dynamics are consistent over the fifteen years, being in line with the rice cultivation cycle. Water renewal in Albufera lake is altered with respect to that expected according to the rainfall recorded in the study area, so an improvement in the water management of the hydrological basin is required to optimize the runoff during the rainiest months. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Application of Remote Sensing in Hydrology)

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16 pages, 3459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of the Rainfall Erosivity in the Rieti Province, Central Italy, Using Empirical Formulas and a Stochastic Rainfall Generator

by Andrea Petroselli, Ciro Apollonio, Davide Luciano De Luca, Pietro Salvaneschi, Massimo Pecci, Tatiana Marras and Bartolomeo Schirone

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040171 - 19 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2823

Abstract

Soil erosion caused by intense rainfall events is one of the major problems affecting agricultural and forest ecosystems. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is probably the most adopted approach for rainfall erosivity estimation, but in order to be properly employed it needs [...] Read more.

Soil erosion caused by intense rainfall events is one of the major problems affecting agricultural and forest ecosystems. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is probably the most adopted approach for rainfall erosivity estimation, but in order to be properly employed it needs high resolution rainfall data which are often unavailable. In this case, empirical formulas, employing aggregated rainfall data, are commonly used. In this work, we select 12 empirical formulas for the estimation of the USLE rainfall erosivity in order to assess their reliability. Moreover, we used a Stochastic Rainfall Generator (SRG) to simulate a long and high-resolution rainfall time series with the aim of assessing its application to rainfall erosivity estimations. From the analysis, performed in the Rieti province of Central Italy, we identified three equations which seem to provide better results. Moreover, the use of the selected SRG seems promising and it could help in solving the problem of hydrological data scarcity and consequently guarantee major accuracy in soil erosion estimation. Full article

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21 pages, 9948 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Flood Management and Mitigation Measures in Ungauged NATURA Protected Watersheds

by Aristeidis Kastridis, Georgios Theodosiou and Georgios Fotiadis

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040170 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3930

Abstract

The aim of this study is to investigate the flood management and mitigation measures in ungauged NATURA protected watersheds. The examined watersheds are located in one the most European significant NATURA areas (Prespa Natural Park North Greece). SCS-CN model was applied to perform [...] Read more.

The aim of this study is to investigate the flood management and mitigation measures in ungauged NATURA protected watersheds. The examined watersheds are located in one the most European significant NATURA areas (Prespa Natural Park North Greece). SCS-CN model was applied to perform the hydrological modeling for extreme rainfalls of 50, 100 and 1000 return periods. Extensive field research was conducted to record all the hydrotechnical works of the study area, to evaluate their current condition and measure the respective hydraulic characteristics. The results of the hydrological modeling showed that the flood danger in the study area is generally low. However, almost the half of the hydrotechnical works could not discharge the high and medium probability (50 and 100 years) peak flows. The main causes are the extremely dense riparian vegetation that has been developed on the banks and the thalweg of the riverbeds and in some cases the inappropriate dimensioning of the technical works. The intense development of the riparian vegetation, has increased the roughness coefficient and reduced the dimensions and discharge capability of the technical works, while NATURA restrictions and regulations may be limiting any logging and trimming activities within the streams, especially in priority habitat types. Special Ecological Evaluation studies and educating the public about the necessity of the flood control measures and impact, could provide a framework for a thorough discussion about the flood management in NATURA areas. Full article

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17 pages, 4272 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Remote and In-Situ Data to Assess the Hydrological Response of a Post-Fire Watershed

by Luca Folador, Alessio Cislaghi, Giorgio Vacchiano and Daniele Masseroni

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040169 - 12 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3385

Abstract

Forest fire is a common concern in Mediterranean watersheds. Fire-induced canopy mortality may cause the degradation of chemical–physical properties in the soil and influence hydrological processes within and across watersheds. However, the prediction of the pedological and hydrological effect of forest fires with [...] Read more.

Forest fire is a common concern in Mediterranean watersheds. Fire-induced canopy mortality may cause the degradation of chemical–physical properties in the soil and influence hydrological processes within and across watersheds. However, the prediction of the pedological and hydrological effect of forest fires with heterogenous severities across entire watersheds remains a difficult task. A large forest fire occurred in 2017 in northern Italy providing the opportunity to test an integrated approach that exploits remote and in-situ data for assessing the impact of forest fires on the hydrological response of semi-natural watersheds. The approach is based on a combination of remotely-sensed information on burned areas and in-situ measurements of soil infiltration in burned areas. Such collected data were used to adapt a rainfall–runoff model over an experimental watershed to produce a comparative evaluation of flood peak and volume of runoff in pre- and post-fire conditions. The model is based on a semi-distributed approach that exploits the Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) and lag-time methods for the estimation of hydrological losses and runoff propagation, respectively, across the watershed. The effects of fire on hydrological losses were modeled by adjusting the CN values for different fire severities. Direct infiltration measurements were carried out to better understand the effect of fire on soil infiltration capacity. We simulated the hydrological response of the burned watershed following one of the most severe storm events that had hit the area in the last few years. Fire had serious repercussions in regard to the hydrological response, increasing the flood peak and the runoff volume up to 125% and 75%, respectively. Soil infiltration capacity was seriously compromised by fire as well, reducing unsaturated hydraulic conductivity up to 75% compared with pre-fire conditions. These findings can provide insights into the impact of forest fires on the hydrological response of a whole watershed and improve the assessment of surface runoff alterations suffered by a watershed in post-fire conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Flow Modeling for Water Resources and Hydrological Engineering)

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15 pages, 5727 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Tracer Dispersion through Karst Conduit: Assessment of Small-Scale Heterogeneity by Multi-Point Tracer Test and CFD Modeling

by Romain Deleu, Sandra Soarez Frazao, Amaël Poulain, Gaëtan Rochez and Vincent Hallet

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040168 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2811

Abstract

Tracer tests are widely used for characterizing hydrodynamics, from stream-scale to basin-wide scale. In karstic environments, the positioning of field fluorometers (or sampling) is mostly determined by the on-site configuration and setup difficulties. Most users are probably aware of the importance of this [...] Read more.

Tracer tests are widely used for characterizing hydrodynamics, from stream-scale to basin-wide scale. In karstic environments, the positioning of field fluorometers (or sampling) is mostly determined by the on-site configuration and setup difficulties. Most users are probably aware of the importance of this positioning for the relevance of data, and single-point tests are considered reliable. However, this importance is subjective to the user and the impact of positioning is not well quantified. This study aimed to quantify the spatial heterogeneity of tracer concentration through time in a karstic environment, and its impact on tracer test results and derived information on local hydrodynamics. Two approaches were considered: on-site tracing experiments in a karstic river, and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling of tracer dispersion through a discretized karst river channel. A comparison between on-site tracer breakthrough curves and CFD results was allowed by a thorough assessment of the river geometry. The results of on-site tracer tests showed significant heterogeneities of the breakthrough curve shape from fluorometers placed along a cross-section. CFD modeling of the tracer test through the associated discretized site geometry showed similar heterogeneity and was consistent with the positioning of on-site fluorometers, thus showing that geometry is a major contributor of the spatial heterogeneity of tracer concentration through time in karstic rivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydro-Geology of Karst Areas)

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37 pages, 10603 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Non-Structural Flood Management in European Rural Mountain Areas—Are Scientists Supporting Implementation?

by Felix Conitz, Aude Zingraff-Hamed, Gerd Lupp and Stephan Pauleit

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040167 - 5 Nov 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 10037

Abstract

Mountain areas are highly exposed to flood risks. The latter are increasing in the context of climate change, urbanization, and land use changes. Non-structural approaches such as nature-based solutions can provide opportunities to reduce the risks of such natural hazards and provide further [...] Read more.

Mountain areas are highly exposed to flood risks. The latter are increasing in the context of climate change, urbanization, and land use changes. Non-structural approaches such as nature-based solutions can provide opportunities to reduce the risks of such natural hazards and provide further ecological, social, and economic benefits. However, few non-structural flood mitigation measures are implemented in rural mountain areas so far. The objective of this paper is to investigate if the scientific boundaries limit the implementation of non-structural flood management in rural mountain areas. In the study, we statistically analyzed the knowledge about flood management through a systematic literature review and expert surveys, with a focus on European rural mountain areas. Both methods showed that scientific knowledge is available for decision makers and that nature-based solutions are efficient, cost-effective, multifunctional, and have potential for large-scale implementation. Full article

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34 pages, 7554 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Water Qualities and Blending in the Ogallala and Dockum Aquifers in Texas

by Nathan Howell

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040166 - 4 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3417

Abstract

Within the US Southern High Plains, it is known that the Ogallala Aquifer (OA) has been over pumped since large-scale agriculture began making use of the water in the 1950s. One option to address the decline is to find new water sources. The [...] Read more.

Within the US Southern High Plains, it is known that the Ogallala Aquifer (OA) has been over pumped since large-scale agriculture began making use of the water in the 1950s. One option to address the decline is to find new water sources. The last 10–15 years have seen an increase in drilling large capacity, deeper wells in the co-located Dockum Aquifer in the Texas Panhandle. This lower aquifer is separated from the OA by low hydraulic conductivity sediment and is thus generally considered independent from the OA. We examined the suitability of the Dockum to supplement OA water by comparing recent water chemistries where the aquifers coexist. We also examined historical information on well yield, well development, and water quality. We found that water quality is equivalent to the Ogallala in some places but in others it is saltier, softer, and more sodic. Use of PCA and hydrochemical facies revealed that even in this small area Dockum water quality is highly variable. We used USGS-PHREEQC to model water blending at ratios of 0–>100% Ogallala. We show that there is irrigation water quality risk no matter the blend, that risks differ according to location, and that the most frequent risks are salinity, sodicity, and nitrate. We conclude that growers can manage these risks if they use blending to choose the risks they feel most apt to mitigate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Management)

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21 pages, 7636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrologic Utility of Satellite-Based and Gauge-Based Gridded Precipitation Products in the Huai Bang Sai Watershed of Northeastern Thailand

by Miyuru B. Gunathilake, M. N. M. Zamri, Tharaka P. Alagiyawanna, Jayanga T. Samarasinghe, Pavithra K. Baddewela, Mukand S. Babel, Manoj K. Jha and Upaka S. Rathnayake

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040165 - 3 Nov 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3827

Abstract

Accurate rainfall estimates are important in many hydrologic activities. Rainfall data are retrieved from rain gauges (RGs), satellites, radars, and re-analysis products. The accuracy of gauge-based gridded precipitation products (GbGPPs) relies on the distribution of RGs and the quality of rainfall data records [...] Read more.

Accurate rainfall estimates are important in many hydrologic activities. Rainfall data are retrieved from rain gauges (RGs), satellites, radars, and re-analysis products. The accuracy of gauge-based gridded precipitation products (GbGPPs) relies on the distribution of RGs and the quality of rainfall data records obtained from these. The accuracy of satellite-based precipitation products (SbPPs) depends on many factors, including basin climatology, basin topography, precipitation mechanism, etc. The hydrologic utility of different precipitation products was examined in many developed regions; however, less focused on the developing world. The Huai Bang Sai (HBS) watershed in north-eastern Thailand is a less focused but an important catchment that significantly contributes to the water resources in Thailand. Therefore, this research presents the investigation results of the hydrologic utility of SbPPs and GbGPPs in the HBS watershed. The efficiency of nine SbPPs (including 3B42, 3B42-RT, PERSIANN, PERSIANN-CCS, PERSIANN-CDR, CHIRPS, CMORPH, IMERG, and MSWEP) and three GbGPPs (including APHRODITE_V1801, APHRODITE_V1901, and GPCC) was examined by simulating streamflow of the HBS watershed through the Soil & Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), hydrologic model. Subsequently, the streamflow simulation capacity of the hydrological model for different precipitation products was compared against observed streamflow records by using the same set of calibrated parameters used for an RG simulated scenario. The 3B42 product outperformed other SbPPS with a higher Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (

N S E_{m o n t h l y} > 0.55

), while APHRODITE_V1901 (

N S E_{m o n t h l y} > 0.53

) performed fairly well in the GbGPPs category with closer agreements with observed streamflow. In addition, the CMORPH precipitation product has not performed well in capturing observed rainfall and subsequently in simulating streamflow (

N S E_{m o n t h l y} < 0

) of the HBS. Furthermore, MSWEP and CHIRPS products have performed fairly well during calibration; however, they showcased a lowered performance for validation. Therefore, the results suggest that accurate precipitation data is the major governing factor in streamflow modeling performances. The research outcomes would capture the interest of all stakeholders, including farmers, meteorologists, agriculturists, river basin managers, and hydrologists for potential applications in the tropical humid regions of the world. Moreover, 3B42 and APHRODITE_V1901 precipitation products show promising prospects for the tropical humid regions of the world for hydrologic modeling and climatological studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change Effects on Hydrology and Water Resources)

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27 pages, 4879 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hydroclimatological Patterns and Limnological Characteristics of Unique Wetland Systems on the Argentine High Andean Plateau

by Diego Frau, Brendan J. Moran, Felicity Arengo, Patricia Marconi, Yamila Battauz, Celeste Mora, Ramiro Manzo, Gisela Mayora and David F. Boutt

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040164 - 3 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5301

Abstract

High-elevation wetlands in South America are not well described despite their high sensitivity to human impact and unique biodiversity. We describe the hydroclimatological and limnological characteristics of 21 wetlands on the High Andean Plateau of Argentina, synthesizing information gathered over ten years (2010–2020). [...] Read more.

High-elevation wetlands in South America are not well described despite their high sensitivity to human impact and unique biodiversity. We describe the hydroclimatological and limnological characteristics of 21 wetlands on the High Andean Plateau of Argentina, synthesizing information gathered over ten years (2010–2020). We collected physical-chemical, phytoplankton, and zooplankton data and counted flamingos in each wetland. We also conducted an extensive analysis of climatic patterns and hydrological responses since 1985. These wetlands are shallow, with a wide range of salinity (from fresh to brine), mostly alkaline, and are dominated by carbonate and gypsum deposits and sodium-chloride waters. They tend to have high nutrient concentrations. Plankton shows a low species richness and moderate to high dominance of taxa. Flamingos are highly dependent on the presence of Bacillariophyta, which appears to be positively linked to silica and soluble reactive phosphorus availability. Climatic conditions show a strong region-wide increase in average air temperature since the mid-1980s and a decrease in precipitation between 1985–1999 and 2000–2020. These high-elevation wetlands are fundamentally sensitive systems; therefore, having baseline information becomes imperative to understanding the impact of climatic changes and other human perturbations. This work attempts to advance the body of scientific knowledge of these unique wetland systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Ecohydrology of Arid Lands)

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22 pages, 1572 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Evapotranspiration Trends and Interactions in Light of the Anthropogenic Footprint and the Climate Crisis: A Review

by Stavroula Dimitriadou and Konstantinos G. Nikolakopoulos

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040163 - 1 Nov 2021

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7002

Abstract

Evapotranspiration (ET) is a parameter of major importance participating in both hydrological cycle and surface energy balance. Trends of ET are discussed along with the dependence of evaporation to key environmental variables. The evaporation paradox can be approached via natural phenomena aggravated by [...] Read more.

Evapotranspiration (ET) is a parameter of major importance participating in both hydrological cycle and surface energy balance. Trends of ET are discussed along with the dependence of evaporation to key environmental variables. The evaporation paradox can be approached via natural phenomena aggravated by anthropogenic impact. ET appears as one of the most affected parameters by human activities. Complex hydrological processes are governed by local environmental conditions thus generalizations are difficult. However, in some settings, common hydrological interactions could be detected. Mediterranean climate regions (MCRs) appear vulnerability to the foreseen increase in ET, aggravated by precipitation shifting and air temperature warming, whereas in tropical forests its role is rather beneficial. ET determines groundwater level and quality. Groundwater level appeared to be a robust predictor of annual ET for peatlands in Southeast Asia. In semi-arid to arid areas, increases in ET have implications on water availability and soil salinization. ET-changes after a wildfire can be substantial for groundwater recharge if a canopy-loss threshold is surpassed. Those consequences are site-specific. Post-fire ET rebound seems climate and fire-severity-dependent. Overall, this qualitative structured review sets the foundations for interdisciplinary researchers and water managers to deploy ET as a means to address challenging environmental issues such as water availability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Evaporation and Evaporative Demand)

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16 pages, 4631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical and Experimental Approaches to Estimate Discharge Coefficients and Energy Loss Coefficients in Pressurized Grated Inlets

by Jackson Tellez-Alvarez, Manuel Gómez, Beniamino Russo and Marko Amezaga-Kutija

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040162 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3595

Abstract

Numerical models concerning inlet systems are run to assess the hydraulic performance of existing or new systems and estimate the flow interchanges between the surface overland and sewer flows. In most programs, these interactions are modelled using the orifice equation, with estimated discharge [...] Read more.

Numerical models concerning inlet systems are run to assess the hydraulic performance of existing or new systems and estimate the flow interchanges between the surface overland and sewer flows. In most programs, these interactions are modelled using the orifice equation, with estimated discharge coefficients around 0.6. In this paper, discharge values and energy loss coefficients for several pressurized grated inlets were obtained by experimental and numerical approaches and compared. To achieve these goals, a numerical model replicating several experimental tests carried out at the hydraulic laboratory of Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC) was produced using a CFD model (Flow 3D). This numerical model was found to be highly sensitive to the mesh size used; however, it was able to accurately simulate the experimental processes. The comparison considered different combinations of pressurized flow though the grate, between 10 to 50 l/s, and different longitudinal gradients. The experimental discharge coefficient was found to increase with surcharging flowrate (ranging from 0.14 and 0.41), whereas the longitudinal gradient was found to have no effect. The discharge coefficients obtained in this study show that the standard 0.6 value commonly used by practitioners should be revised to a range between 0.14 to 0.41, depending on circulating flow and inlet type. In addition, the loss coefficient values range from 0.25 to 3.41. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Perspectives in Flood Risk Modeling, Assessment and Communication)

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16 pages, 299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

We Have Plenty of Water, Don’t We? Social Norms, Practices, and Contentions in a Drought-Ridden Country

by Angela T. Ragusa

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040161 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2724

Abstract

Climate and land use change pose global challenges to water policy and management. This article furthers calls for integrated research conceptualizing water management as a holistic, interdependent system that may benefit from sociological research. To better understand how socioenvironmental change affects lifestyle expectations [...] Read more.

Climate and land use change pose global challenges to water policy and management. This article furthers calls for integrated research conceptualizing water management as a holistic, interdependent system that may benefit from sociological research. To better understand how socioenvironmental change affects lifestyle expectations and experiences, interviews with in-migrants (relocated to inland Australia from metropolitan cities), industry and government informants are thematically analyzed. Results show in-migrants engage in adaptive water management and conservation strategies to enhance water security, yet call for council provision of water management education to minimize vulnerability. Industry informants perceive few water supply or pollution issues, favoring technological solutions to support unfettered growth and water amenities, while de-prioritizing environmental sustainability goals. Government priorities reflect drought narratives in Australian water policy reform and show concern about meeting consumer water supply and preserving water quality. With predictions of greater weather severity, including flooding, and in-migrants’ difficulty managing heavy rainfall, national legislation and policy modifications are necessary. Specifically, normalizing climate variability in policy and social identities is desirable. Finally, practices prioritizing water scarcity and trading management over environmental protection indicate a need to surpass environmental commodification by depoliticizing water management. Full article

13 pages, 30060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Precipitation and Potential Evapotranspiration Temporal Variability and Their Relationship in Two Forest Ecosystems in Greece

by Stefanos Stefanidis and Vasileios Alexandridis

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040160 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4349

Abstract

The assessment of drought conditions is important in forestry because it affects forest growth and species diversity. In this study, temporal variability and trends of precipitation (P), potential evapotranspiration (PET), and their relationship (P/PET) were examined in two selected forest ecosystems that present [...] Read more.

The assessment of drought conditions is important in forestry because it affects forest growth and species diversity. In this study, temporal variability and trends of precipitation (P), potential evapotranspiration (PET), and their relationship (P/PET) were examined in two selected forest ecosystems that present different climatic conditions and vegetation types due to their location and hypsometric zone. The study area includes the forests of Pertouli and Taxiarchis, which are managed by the Aristotle University Forest Administration and Management Fund. The Pertouli is a coniferous forest in Central Greece with a maximum elevation of 2073 m a.s.l, and Taxiarchis is a broadleaved forest in Northern Greece with a maximum elevation of 1200 m a.s.l. To accomplish the goals of the current research, long–term (1974–2016) monthly precipitation and air temperature data from two mountainous meteorological were collected and processed. The PET was estimated using a parametric model based on simplified formulation of the Penman–Monteith equation rather than the commonly used Thornthwaite approach. Seasonal and annual precipitation, potential evapotranspiration (PET), and their ratio (P/PET) values were subjected to Mann–Kendall tests to assess the possible upward or downward trends, and Sen’s slope method was used to estimate the trends magnitude. The results indicated that the examined climatic variables vary greatly between seasons. In general, negative trends were detected for the precipitation time series of Pertouli, whereas positive trends were found in Taxiarchis; both were statistically insignificant. In contrast, statistically significant positive trends were reported for PET in both forest ecosystems. These circumstances led to different drought conditions between the two forests due to the differences of their elevation. Regarding Pertouli, drought trend analysis indicated downward trends for annual, winter, spring, and summer values, whereas autumn showed a slight upward trend. In addition, the average magnitude trend per decade was approximately −2.5%, −3.5%, +4.8%, −0.8%, and +3.3% for annual, winter, autumn, spring, and summer seasons, respectively. On the contrary, the drought trend and the associated magnitude per decade for the Taxiarchis forest were found to be as follows: annual (+2.2%), winter (+6.2%), autumn (+9.2%), spring (+1.0%), and summer (−5.0%). The performed statistical test showed that the reported trend was statistically insignificant at a 5% significance level. These results may be a useful tool as a forest management practice and can enhance the adaptation and resilience of forest ecosystems to climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Evaporation and Evaporative Demand)

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25 pages, 9245 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A GIS-Cellular Automata-Based Model for Coupling Urban Sprawl and Flood Susceptibility Assessment

by Evangelia Stamellou, Kleomenis Kalogeropoulos, Nikolaos Stathopoulos, Demetrios E. Tsesmelis, Panagiota Louka, Vasileios Apostolidis and Andreas Tsatsaris

Hydrology 2021, 8(4), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8040159 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3534

Abstract

In Urban Planning (UP), it is necessary to take under serious consideration the inhibitors of the spread of a settlement in a specific direction. This means that all those parameters for which serious problems may arise in the future should be considered. Among [...] Read more.

In Urban Planning (UP), it is necessary to take under serious consideration the inhibitors of the spread of a settlement in a specific direction. This means that all those parameters for which serious problems may arise in the future should be considered. Among these parameters are geo-hazards, such as floods, landslides, mud movement, etc. This study deals with UP taking into account the possibility of widespread flooding in settlement expansion areas. There is a large flooding history in Greece, which is accompanied by a significant number of disasters in different types of land use/land cover, with a large financial cost of compensation and/or rehabilitation. The study area is the drainage basin of Erasinos River in the Attica Region, where many and frequent flood events have been recorded. The main goal of this study is to determine the flood susceptibility of the study area, taking into account possible factors that are decisive in flood occurrence. Furthermore, the flood susceptibility is also determined, taking into account the scenarios of precipitation and the urban sprawl scenario in the area of reference. The study of flood events uses the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) model and the urban sprawl model SLEUTH, which calibrates historical urban growth, using open and cost-free data and software. Eventually, flood susceptibility maps were overlaid with future urban areas to find the vulnerable areas. Following, three scenarios of flood susceptibility with the corresponding susceptibility maps and vulnerability maps, which measure the flood susceptibility of the current and future urban space of the study area, are presented. The results have shown significant peaks in the moderate class of flood susceptibility, while, in the third scenario, high values of flood susceptibility seem to appear. The proposed methodology and specifically the output maps can serve as a decision support tool to assist urban planners and hazard managers in making informed decisions towards sustainable urban planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Flood Mitigation and Stormwater Management)

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