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Batteries
Volume 10
Issue 9
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Batteries, Volume 10, Issue 9 (September 2024) – 41 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The paper titled "Second‑Life Assessment of Commercial LiFePO4 Batteries Retired from EVs" explores the potential for repurposing retired LiFePO4 (LFP) batteries from electric vehicles (EVs) for second-life applications, particularly in energy storage systems. Through extensive testing on both individual cells and battery modules, the study reveals that while LFP cells have long life cycles with stable performance, battery modules often face capacity reductions due to imbalance issues. This research identifies the optimal operating conditions needed to extend the lifespan of these batteries in their second life, emphasizing the importance of balancing systems. The study’s findings offer valuable insights for sustainable battery management, promoting the extended use of batteries before they are recycled. View this paper
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22 pages, 4632 KiB  
Article
Application of Deep Learning to Optimize Gradient Porosity Profile for Improved Energy Density of Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Mahshid Nejati Amiri, Odne Stokke Burheim and Jacob Joseph Lamb
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090336 - 21 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1053
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries with high active material loading can yield a high energy density at low C-rates. However, the sluggish ion transport caused by longer and more tortuous pathways hinders high energy delivery when extracting high power. This study presents the implementation of neural [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries with high active material loading can yield a high energy density at low C-rates. However, the sluggish ion transport caused by longer and more tortuous pathways hinders high energy delivery when extracting high power. This study presents the implementation of neural networks to optimize the gradient active material distribution profile throughout the thickness of electrodes to enhance energy density. The profiles were randomly generated, while maintaining a constant average active material in each electrode. An electrochemical–thermal model was used to investigate the impact of different profiles. A neural network model was then developed to establish the connection between the profiles and the resulting energy density for various electrode thicknesses and C-rates, utilizing a limited amount of simulation data. The neural network model could replicate the performance of the electrochemical–thermal model, but with significantly reduced computational time. This enabled the possibility of efficiently exploring a vast number of candidate profiles to identify the most optimal one for each of the positive and negative electrodes. The results showed that the gradient profiles were mostly influenced by the average active material, rather than the thickness of the electrode. Finally, at high currents, the optimal gradient profiles increased the energy density by over four times compared to uniform electrodes. Full article
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21 pages, 3233 KiB  
Article
Sensor Fusion-Based Pulsed Controller for Low Power Solar-Charged Batteries with Experimental Tests: NiMH Battery as a Case Study
by Shyam Yadasu, Vinay Kumar Awaar, Vatsala Rani Jetti and Mohsen Eskandari
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090335 - 21 Sep 2024
Viewed by 719
Abstract
Solar energy is considered the major source of clean and ubiquitous renewable energy available on various scales in electric grids. In addition, solar energy is harnessed in various electronic devices to charge the batteries and power electronic equipment. Due to its ubiquitous nature, [...] Read more.
Solar energy is considered the major source of clean and ubiquitous renewable energy available on various scales in electric grids. In addition, solar energy is harnessed in various electronic devices to charge the batteries and power electronic equipment. Due to its ubiquitous nature, the corresponding market for solar-charged small-scale batteries is growing fast. The most important part to make the technology feasible is a portable battery charger and the associated controllers to automate battery charging. The charger should consider the case of charging to be convenient for the user and minimize battery degradation. However, the issue of slow charging and premature battery life loss plagues current industry standards or innovative battery technologies. In this paper, a new pulse charging technique is proposed that obviates battery deterioration and minimizes the overall charging loss. The solar-powered battery charger is prototyped and executed as a practical, versatile, and compact photovoltaic charge controller at cut rates. With the aid of sensor fusion, the charge controller is disconnected and reconnects the battery during battery overcharging and deep discharging conditions using sensors with relays. The laboratory model is tested using a less expensive PV panel, battery, and digital signal processor (DSP) controller. The charging behavior of the solar-powered PWM charge controller is studied compared with that of the constant voltage–constant current (CV–CC) method. The proposed method is pertinent for minimizing energy issues in impoverished places at a reasonable price. Full article
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8 pages, 3228 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Tin Dioxide Anode Performance by Narrowing the Potential Range and Optimizing Electrolytes
by Jose Fernando Florez Gomez, Fernando Camacho Domenech, Songyang Chang, Valerio Dorvilien, Nischal Oli, Brad R. Weiner, Gerardo Morell and Xianyong Wu
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090334 - 21 Sep 2024
Viewed by 744
Abstract
Tin dioxide (SnO2) is a low-cost and high-capacity anode material for lithium-ion batteries, but the fast capacity fading significantly limits its practical applications. Current research efforts have focused on preparing sophisticated composite structures or optimizing functional binders, both of which increase [...] Read more.
Tin dioxide (SnO2) is a low-cost and high-capacity anode material for lithium-ion batteries, but the fast capacity fading significantly limits its practical applications. Current research efforts have focused on preparing sophisticated composite structures or optimizing functional binders, both of which increase material manufacturing costs. Herein, we utilize pristine and commercially available SnO2 nanopowders and enhance their cycling performance by simply narrowing the potential range and optimizing electrolytes. Specifically, a narrower potential range (0–1 V) mitigates the capacity fading associated with the conversion reaction, whereas an ether-based electrolyte further suppresses the volume expansion related to the alloy reaction. Consequently, this SnO2 anode delivers a promising battery performance, with a high capacity of ~650 mAhg−1 and stable cycling for 100 cycles. Our work provides an alternative approach to developing high-capacity and long-cycling metal oxide anode materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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16 pages, 3125 KiB  
Article
Quantifying the Aging of Lithium-Ion Pouch Cells Using Pressure Sensors
by Yousof Nayfeh, Jon C. Vittitoe and Xianglin Li
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090333 - 21 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1106
Abstract
Understanding the behavior of pressure increases in lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells is essential for prolonging the lifespan of Li-ion battery cells and minimizing the safety risks associated with cell aging. This work investigates the effects of C-rates and temperature on pressure behavior in commercial [...] Read more.
Understanding the behavior of pressure increases in lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells is essential for prolonging the lifespan of Li-ion battery cells and minimizing the safety risks associated with cell aging. This work investigates the effects of C-rates and temperature on pressure behavior in commercial lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)/graphite pouch cells. The battery is volumetrically constrained, and the mechanical pressure response is measured using a force gauge as the battery is cycled. The effect of the C-rate (1C, 2C, and 3C) and ambient temperature (10 °C, 25 °C, and 40 °C) on the increase in battery pressure is investigated. By analyzing the change in the minimum, maximum, and pressure difference per cycle, we identify and discuss the effects of different factors (i.e., SEI layer damage, electrolyte decomposition, lithium plating) on the pressure behavior. Operating at high C-rates or low temperatures rapidly increases the residual pressure as the battery is cycled. The results suggest that lithium plating is predominantly responsible for battery expansion and pressure increase during the cycle aging of Li-ion cells rather than electrolyte decomposition. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements can support our conclusions. Postmortem analysis of the aged cells was performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to confirm the occurrence of lithium plating and film growth on the anodes of the aged cells. This study demonstrates that pressure measurements can provide insights into the aging mechanisms of Li-ion batteries and can be used as a reliable predictor of battery degradation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)
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13 pages, 3842 KiB  
Article
An Evaluation Modeling Study of Thermal Runaway in Li-Ion Batteries Based on Operation Environments in an Energy Storage System
by Min-Haeng Lee, Sung-Moon Choi, Kyung-Hwa Kim, Hyun-Sang You, Se-Jin Kim and Dae-Seok Rho
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090332 - 19 Sep 2024
Viewed by 908
Abstract
According to the green growth and carbon-neutral policy in Korea, the installation of large-capacity ESSs is rapidly being increased, but a total number of 50 ESS fire cases have occurred since the end of 2023. ESSs are typically composed of series-parallel connections with [...] Read more.
According to the green growth and carbon-neutral policy in Korea, the installation of large-capacity ESSs is rapidly being increased, but a total number of 50 ESS fire cases have occurred since the end of 2023. ESSs are typically composed of series-parallel connections with numerous Li-ion batteries, and when the temperature of a deteriorated cell increases due to thermal, electrical, and mechanical stress, thermal runaway can occur due to additional heat generated by an internal chemical reaction. Here, an internal chemical reaction in a Li-ion battery results in the different characteristics on the decomposition reaction and heat release depending on the operation conditions in the ESS, such as the rising temperature rate, convective heat transfer coefficient, and C-rate of charging and discharging. Therefore, this paper presents mathematical equations and modeling of thermal runaway, composed of the heating device section, heat release section by chemical reaction, chemical reaction section at the SEI layer, chemical reaction section between the negative and positive electrodes and solvents, and chemical reaction section at the electrolyte by itself, based on MATLAB/SIMULINK (2022), which were validated by a thermal runaway test device. From the simulation and test results based on the proposed simulation modeling and test device according to the operation conditions in ESSs, it was found that the proposed modeling is an effective and reliable tool to evaluate the processing characteristics of thermal runaway because the occurrence time intervals and maximum temperatures had almost the same values in both the test device and simulation modeling. Accordingly, it was confirmed that the rising temperature rate and the convective heat transfer coefficient were more critical in the thermal runaway than the C-rate of charging and discharging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Reliability and Health Management of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 4688 KiB  
Article
A Coordinated Control Strategy for Efficiency Improvement of Multistack Fuel Cell Systems in Electric–Hydrogen Hybrid Energy Storage System
by Jianlin Li, Ce Liang and Zelin Shi
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090331 - 19 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1114
Abstract
A two-layer coordinated control strategy is proposed to solve the power allocation problem faced by electric–hydrogen hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) when compensating for the fluctuating power of the DC microgrid. The upper-layer control strategy is the system-level control. Considering the energy storage [...] Read more.
A two-layer coordinated control strategy is proposed to solve the power allocation problem faced by electric–hydrogen hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) when compensating for the fluctuating power of the DC microgrid. The upper-layer control strategy is the system-level control. Considering the energy storage margin of each energy storage system, fuzzy logic control (FLC) is used to make the initial power allocation between the battery energy storage system (BESS) and the multistack fuel cell system (MFCS). The lower-layer control strategy is the device-level control. Considering the individual differences and energy-storage margin differences of the single-stack fuel cell (FC) in an MFCS, FLC is used to make the initial power allocation of the FC. To improve the hydrogen-to-electricity conversion efficiency of the MFCS, a strategy for optimization by perturbation (OP) is used to adjust the power allocation of the FC. The output difference of the MFCS before and after the adjustment is compensated for by the BESS. The simulation and experiment results show that the mentioned coordinated control strategy can enable the HESS to achieve adaptive power allocation based on the energy storage margin and obtain an improvement in the hydrogen-to-electricity conversion efficiency of the MFCS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Preparation, Storage, and Transportation of Green Hydrogen and Multi-Scenario Application Technologies)
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46 pages, 46123 KiB  
Review
Review of Current Collector-, Binder-, Conductive Additive-Free, and Freestanding Electrodes in Lithium and Related Batteries
by Futoshi Matsumoto and Mika Fukunishi
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090330 - 19 Sep 2024
Viewed by 2048
Abstract
Because current collectors (CCs), Binders (BDs), and conductive additives (CAs) in cathodes and anodes do not directly contribute to charging and discharging, they decrease the energy density of the battery. Improvement of battery energy density is essential for future batteries. If it were [...] Read more.
Because current collectors (CCs), Binders (BDs), and conductive additives (CAs) in cathodes and anodes do not directly contribute to charging and discharging, they decrease the energy density of the battery. Improvement of battery energy density is essential for future batteries. If it were possible to pack electrode active materials into the empty space without using CCs, BDs, and CAs, the energy density of the battery would increase. Therefore, attempts to avoid using these materials in batteries are being investigated. In this review article, methods for manufacturing electrodes without using these materials, as well as the performance and durability of the electrodes, are summarized and discussed. After explaining the function and necessity of the CCs, BDs, and CAs, methods for manufacturing electrodes without using CCs, BDs, and CAs, as well as the performance and durability of the electrodes, were summarized and discussed. In addition to battery performance, the mechanical durability of the electrodes is also explained since not using CCs, BDs, and CAs will cause problems with the electrodes’ mechanical durability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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19 pages, 4094 KiB  
Article
Model-Based Design of LFP Battery Thermal Management System for EV Application
by Nadjiba Sophy-Mahfoudi, Sai-Vandhan Sekharam, M’hamed Boutaous and Shihe Xin
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090329 - 18 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1586
Abstract
This study uses an equivalent circuit model (ECM) and real-time data to model lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries to accurately represent their thermo-electrical behavior. In particular, the focus is on a thermal management perspective in high-performance electric vehicles (EVs). The ECM-based battery management [...] Read more.
This study uses an equivalent circuit model (ECM) and real-time data to model lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries to accurately represent their thermo-electrical behavior. In particular, the focus is on a thermal management perspective in high-performance electric vehicles (EVs). The ECM-based battery management system, which effectively captures the non-linear behavior of Li-ion batteries, is developed to optimize the safety, lifespan and overall performance of the EV battery management system. The ECM-based battery model is validated using real-time drive cycle data to enhance the understanding of battery management systems, contributing to improved overall performance and reliability. In addition, advanced estimation algorithms, such as the extended Kalman filter, are integrated to further improve the predictive capabilities of battery parameters. Battery terminal voltage prediction with an average RMSE error of 0.015% is achieved, highlighting the critical role of ECMs and advanced numerical simulation methods in optimizing the performance of automotive battery management systems. The achieved results provide important guidance for model-based design validation and functional development of battery management for mobility applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Batteries)
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23 pages, 23189 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Effect of Motor Waste Heat Recovery on the Temperature and Driving Range of Electric Heavy Truck Batteries
by Zenghai Song, Shuhao Li, Yan Wang, Liguo Li, Jianfeng Hua, Languang Lu, Yalun Li, Hewu Wang, Xuegang Shang and Ruiping Li
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090328 - 15 Sep 2024
Viewed by 907
Abstract
In some scenarios, electric heavy-duty trucks with battery swapping mode (ETBSm) are more cost-effective than battery charging mode. The viability of battery swapping stations is contingent upon the operational requirements and range capabilities of the ETBSm. Low temperatures have the effect of reducing [...] Read more.
In some scenarios, electric heavy-duty trucks with battery swapping mode (ETBSm) are more cost-effective than battery charging mode. The viability of battery swapping stations is contingent upon the operational requirements and range capabilities of the ETBSm. Low temperatures have the effect of reducing the range of the ETBSm, thereby creating difficulties for battery swapping. This article proposes the use of motor waste heat recovery (MWHR) to heat batteries, which would improve range. A number of subsystem models have been established, including the ETBSm, battery, motor, and thermal management system (TMS). The calibration of battery temperature and motor efficiency is achieved with a model error of less than 5%. Comparison of performance, such as temperature, energy consumption, and range, when using only positive temperature coefficient (PTC) heating and when using both PTC heating and motor waste heat. The results indicate a 15% increase in the rate of rise in battery temperature and a 10.64 kW·h reduction in energy consumption under Chinese heavy-duty vehicle commercial vehicle test cycle (CHTC) conditions. Then, the motor waste heat percentage, energy consumption, and range are analyzed at different ambient temperatures. At an ambient temperature of −20 °C, −10 °C, and 0 °C, the percentage of the motor waste heat is 32.1%, 35%, and 40.5%; when 75% of the state of charge (SOC) is consumed, the range is improved by 6.55%, 4.37%, and 4.49%. Additionally, the effect of the PTC heater on temperature characteristics and power consumption is investigated by changing the target temperature of the coolant at the battery inlet. In accordance with the stipulated conditions of an ambient temperature of −20 °C and a target coolant temperature of 40 °C at the battery inlet, the simulation results indicated a battery temperature rise rate of 0.85 °C/min, accompanied by a PTC power consumption of 15.6 kW·h. This study demonstrates that as the ambient temperature increases, the utilization of motor waste heat becomes more effective in reducing PTC heating power consumption. At the lowest ambient temperature tested, the greatest improvement in driving range is observed. It is important to note that while an increase in the target heating temperature of the PTC helps to raise the battery temperature more rapidly, this is accompanied by a higher energy consumption. This article provides a reference for the ETBSm with MWHR. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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25 pages, 7353 KiB  
Review
Surface-Coating Strategies of Si-Negative Electrode Materials in Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Wonyoung Song and Oh B. Chae
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090327 - 14 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1778
Abstract
Silicon (Si) is recognized as a promising candidate for next-generation lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) owing to its high theoretical specific capacity (~4200 mAh g−1), low working potential (<0.4 V vs. Li/Li+), and abundant reserves. However, several challenges, such as severe [...] Read more.
Silicon (Si) is recognized as a promising candidate for next-generation lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) owing to its high theoretical specific capacity (~4200 mAh g−1), low working potential (<0.4 V vs. Li/Li+), and abundant reserves. However, several challenges, such as severe volumetric changes (>300%) during lithiation/delithiation, unstable solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation, and inherently low electrical and ionic conductivity, impede its practical application. To mitigate these challenges, direct contact between the surface of the Si particle and the electrolyte must be prevented. In this review, we elucidated the surface coating strategies to enhance the electro–chemical performance of Si-based materials. We identified the impact of various coating methods and materials on the performance of Si electrodes. Furthermore, the integration of coating strategies with nanostructure design can effectively buffer Si electrode volume expansion and prevent direct contact with the electrolyte, thereby synergistically enhancing electrochemical performance. We highlight opportunities and perspectives for future research on Si-negative electrodes in LIBs, drawing on insights from previous studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Binders and Additives for Rechargeable Batteries)
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21 pages, 5763 KiB  
Article
A Method for Estimating the SOH of Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Graph Perceptual Neural Network
by Kang Chen, Dandan Wang and Wenwen Guo
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090326 - 13 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1201
Abstract
The accurate estimation of battery state of health (SOH) is critical for ensuring the safety and reliability of devices. Considering the variation in health degradation across different types of lithium-ion battery materials, this paper proposes an SOH estimation method based on a graph [...] Read more.
The accurate estimation of battery state of health (SOH) is critical for ensuring the safety and reliability of devices. Considering the variation in health degradation across different types of lithium-ion battery materials, this paper proposes an SOH estimation method based on a graph perceptual neural network, designed to adapt to multiple battery materials. This method adapts to various battery materials by extracting crucial features from current, voltage, voltage–capacity, and temperature data, and it constructs a graph structure to encapsulate these features. This approach effectively captures the complex interactions and dependencies among different battery types. The novel technique of randomly removing features addresses feature redundancy. Initially, a mutual information graph structure is defined to illustrate the interdependencies among battery features. Moreover, a graph perceptual self-attention mechanism is implemented, integrating the adjacency matrix and edge features into the self-attention calculations. This enhancement aids the model’s understanding of battery behaviors, thereby improving the transparency and interpretability of predictions. The experimental results demonstrate that this method outperforms traditional models in both accuracy and generalizability across various battery types, particularly those with significant chemical and degradation discrepancies. The model achieves a minimum mean absolute error of 0.357, a root mean square error of 0.560, and a maximum error of 0.941. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Health Estimation of Batteries)
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14 pages, 2847 KiB  
Article
The Multi-Parameter Fusion Early Warning Method for Lithium Battery Thermal Runaway Based on Cloud Model and Dempster–Shafer Evidence Theory
by Ziyi Xie, Ying Zhang, Hong Wang, Pan Li, Jingyi Shi, Xiankai Zhang and Siyang Li
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090325 - 13 Sep 2024
Viewed by 910
Abstract
As the preferred technology in the current energy storage field, lithium-ion batteries cannot completely eliminate the occurrence of thermal runaway (TR) accidents. It is of significant importance to employ real-time monitoring and warning methods to perceive the battery’s safety status promptly and address [...] Read more.
As the preferred technology in the current energy storage field, lithium-ion batteries cannot completely eliminate the occurrence of thermal runaway (TR) accidents. It is of significant importance to employ real-time monitoring and warning methods to perceive the battery’s safety status promptly and address potential safety hazards. Currently, the monitoring and warning of lithium-ion battery TR heavily rely on the judgment of single parameters, leading to a high false alarm rate. The application of multi-parameter early warning methods based on data fusion remains underutilized. To address this issue, the evaluation of lithium-ion battery safety status was conducted using the cloud model to characterize fuzziness and Dempster–Shafer (DS) evidence theory for evidence fusion, comprehensively assessing the TR risk level. The research determined warning threshold ranges and risk levels by monitoring voltage, temperature, and gas indicators during lithium-ion battery overcharge TR experiments. Subsequently, a multi-parameter fusion approach combining cloud model and DS evidence theory was utilized to confirm the risk status of the battery at any given moment. This method takes into account the fuzziness and uncertainty among multiple parameters, enabling an objective assessment of the TR risk level of lithium-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lithium-Ion Battery Safety and Fire)
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20 pages, 10083 KiB  
Article
State of Health Estimation for Lithium-Ion Battery Using Partial Incremental Capacity Curve and Transfer Learning
by Sheng Huang, Xuemei Wang, Longyun Kang, Di Xie and Xi Zhang
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090324 - 13 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1273
Abstract
Lithium-ion battery state of health (SOH) estimation is critical in battery management systems (BMS), with data-driven methods proving effective in this domain. However, accurately estimating SOH for lithium-ion batteries remains challenging due to the complexities of battery cycling conditions and the constraints of [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion battery state of health (SOH) estimation is critical in battery management systems (BMS), with data-driven methods proving effective in this domain. However, accurately estimating SOH for lithium-ion batteries remains challenging due to the complexities of battery cycling conditions and the constraints of limited data. This paper proposes an estimation approach leveraging partial incremental capacity curves and transfer learning to tackle these challenges. First, only partial voltage segments are utilized for incremental capacity analysis, which are then fed into a stacked bidirectional gated recursive unit (SBiGRU) network, and finally, transfer learning is utilized to address issues related to limited data availability and differing data distributions. The method is further enhanced through hyperparameter optimization to refine estimation accuracy. The proposed method is validated in two publicly available datasets. For the base model, the root mean square error is 0.0033. With the transfer learning method, which utilized only 1.6% of the target domain data, the root mean square error is 0.0039. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method can accurately estimate SOH and works well in training and testing over different voltage ranges. The results underscore the potential of the proposed SOH estimation method for lithium-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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21 pages, 3054 KiB  
Article
Lithium-Ion Battery Health Assessment Method Based on Double Optimization Belief Rule Base with Interpretability
by Zeyang Si, Jinting Shen and Wei He
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090323 - 12 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1285
Abstract
Health assessment is necessary to ensure that lithium-ion batteries operate safely and dependably. Nonetheless, there are the following two common problems with the health assessment models for lithium-ion batteries that are currently in use: inability to comprehend the assessment results and the uncertainty [...] Read more.
Health assessment is necessary to ensure that lithium-ion batteries operate safely and dependably. Nonetheless, there are the following two common problems with the health assessment models for lithium-ion batteries that are currently in use: inability to comprehend the assessment results and the uncertainty around the chemical reactions occurring inside the battery. A rule-based modeling strategy that can handle ambiguous data in health state evaluation is the belief rule base (BRB). In existing BRB studies, experts often provide parameters such as the initial belief degree, but the parameters may not match the current data. In addition, random global optimization methods may undermine the interpretability of expert knowledge. Therefore, this paper proposes a lithium-ion battery health assessment method based on the double optimization belief rule base with interpretability (DO-BRB-I). First, the belief degree is optimized according to the data distribution. Then, to increase accuracy, belief degrees and other parameters are further optimized using the projection covariance matrix adaptive evolution strategy (P-CMA-ES). At the same time, four interpretability constraint strategies are suggested based on the features of lithium-ion batteries to preserve interpretability throughout the optimization process. Finally, to confirm the efficacy of the suggested approach, a sample of the health status assessment of the B0006 lithium-ion battery is provided. Full article
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18 pages, 2533 KiB  
Article
Passivity-Based Control for Transient Power Sharing and State of Charge Restoration in a Semi-Active Supercapacitor-Battery System
by Fabian Fracica-Rodriguez, Manuel Acevedo-Iles, David Romero-Quete, Wilmar Martinez and Camilo A. Cortes
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090322 - 12 Sep 2024
Viewed by 715
Abstract
This paper presents a passivity-based control (PBC) approach integrated with filtering for a supercapacitor (SC) in a semi-active hybrid energy storage system. The PBC is designed as a current controller using the reference provided by the filter to regulate the system’s load current. [...] Read more.
This paper presents a passivity-based control (PBC) approach integrated with filtering for a supercapacitor (SC) in a semi-active hybrid energy storage system. The PBC is designed as a current controller using the reference provided by the filter to regulate the system’s load current. Additionally, an external loop is employed to regulate the SC voltage to a desired value. In this external loop, a low-pass filter is included to decouple voltage and current control during instantaneous changes in load. A detailed, step-by-step description of both the PBC and the SC voltage control strategy is provided, illustrating how voltage regulation is effectively decoupled from current control to ensure optimal operation during load transients. The effectiveness of the proposed control strategy is validated through simulations and Power Hardware-in-the-Loop testing under variable current loads. This comprehensive evaluation method enables testing of control strategies in scenarios closely resembling real-world applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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13 pages, 5003 KiB  
Article
Effects of Crystalline Diamond Nanoparticles on Silicon Thin Films as an Anode for a Lithium-Ion Battery
by Yonhua Tzeng, Cheng-Ying Jhan, Shi-Hong Sung and Yu-Yang Chiou
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090321 - 11 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1047
Abstract
Crystalline diamond nanoparticles which are 3.6 nm in size adhering to thin-film silicon results in a hydrophilic silicon surface for uniform wetting by electrolytes and serves as a current spreader for the prevention of a local high-lithium-ion current density. The excellent physical integrity [...] Read more.
Crystalline diamond nanoparticles which are 3.6 nm in size adhering to thin-film silicon results in a hydrophilic silicon surface for uniform wetting by electrolytes and serves as a current spreader for the prevention of a local high-lithium-ion current density. The excellent physical integrity of an anode made of diamond on silicon and the long-life and high-capacity-retention cycling performance are thus achieved for lithium-ion batteries. A specific capacity of 1860 mAh/g(si) was retained after 200 cycles of discharge/charge at an areal current density of 0.2 mA/cm2. This is compared to 1626 mAh/g(si) for a thin-film-silicon anode without the additive of diamond nanoparticles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Design, Preparation, Reaction Mechanisms of Electrode Materials, and Battery Life Evaluation)
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14 pages, 4421 KiB  
Article
The Effect of a Dual-Layer Coating for High-Capacity Silicon/Graphite Negative Electrodes on the Electrochemical Performance of Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Seonghyun Lim and Minjae Kim
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090320 - 10 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1019
Abstract
Silicon-based electrodes offer a high theoretical capacity and a low cost, making them a promising option for next-generation lithium-ion batteries. However, their practical use is limited due to significant volume changes during charge/discharge cycles, which negatively impact electrochemical performance. This study proposes a [...] Read more.
Silicon-based electrodes offer a high theoretical capacity and a low cost, making them a promising option for next-generation lithium-ion batteries. However, their practical use is limited due to significant volume changes during charge/discharge cycles, which negatively impact electrochemical performance. This study proposes a practical method to increase silicon content in lithium-ion batteries with minimal changes to the manufacturing process by using dual-layer electrodes (DLEs). These DLEs are fabricated with two slurries containing silicon and graphite as active materials. Notably, the electrode with the silicon as the outermost layer on top of the graphite layer (Si-on-top) demonstrated a superior initial capacity of 935 mAh/g and retained 70% of its capacity (537 mAh/g) after 100 cycles at 0.5 C. In contrast, a single-layered electrode (SLE) with a silicon–graphite mixture retained only 50.3% of its capacity (370 mAh/g) under the same conditions. These findings suggest that DLEs, particularly with the silicon layer located on top, effectively increase silicon content in the negative electrode while remaining compatible with existing manufacturing processes. This approach offers a realistic strategy for enhancing the performance of lithium-ion batteries without significant process modifications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Manufacturing: Current Status, Challenges, and Opportunities)
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13 pages, 2633 KiB  
Article
Pyrrolidinium-Based Ionic Liquids as Advanced Non-Aqueous Electrolytes for Safer Next Generation Lithium Batteries
by Antía Santiago-Alonso, José Manuel Sánchez-Pico, Raquel San Emeterio, María Villanueva, Josefa Salgado and Juan José Parajó
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090319 - 10 Sep 2024
Viewed by 730
Abstract
In the current context of increasing energy demand, ionic liquids (ILs) are presented as possible candidates to replace conventional electrolytes and to develop more efficient energy storage devices. The IL 1-Methyl-1-propylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide has been selected for this work, due to the good thermal [...] Read more.
In the current context of increasing energy demand, ionic liquids (ILs) are presented as possible candidates to replace conventional electrolytes and to develop more efficient energy storage devices. The IL 1-Methyl-1-propylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide has been selected for this work, due to the good thermal and chemical stabilities and good electrochemical performance of the pyrrolidinium cation based ILs. Binary mixtures of this IL and lithium salt with the same anion, [TFSI], have been prepared with the aim of assessing them, as possible electrolytes for lithium batteries. These mixtures were thermally and electrochemically characterised through DSC and dielectric spectroscopy studies. The ionic conductivity decreases as the salt concentration increases, finding values ranging between 0.4 S/m and 0.1 S/m at room temperature. Additionally, a wide liquid range was found for the mixtures, which would reduce or even eliminate some of the most common problems of current electrolytes, such as their crystallisation at low temperatures and flammability. Finally, the toxicity of pure IL and the intermediate salt concentration was also evaluated in terms of the bioluminescence inhibition of the Alivibrio Fischeri bacteria, observing that, although the toxicity increases with the salt addition, both samples can be classified as practically harmless. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lithium-Ion Battery Safety and Fire)
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19 pages, 10082 KiB  
Article
Numerical Investigation of the Thermal Performance of Air-Cooling System for a Lithium-Ion Battery Module Combined with Epoxy Resin Boards
by Da Lin, Peng Peng, Yiwei Wang, Yishu Qiu, Wanyi Wu and Fangming Jiang
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090318 - 10 Sep 2024
Viewed by 865
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have the lead as the most used power source for electric vehicles and grid storage systems, and a battery thermal management system (BTMS) can ensure the efficient and safe operation of lithium-ion batteries. Epoxy resin board (ERB) offers a wide [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have the lead as the most used power source for electric vehicles and grid storage systems, and a battery thermal management system (BTMS) can ensure the efficient and safe operation of lithium-ion batteries. Epoxy resin board (ERB) offers a wide range of applications in LIBs due to its significant advantages such as high dielectric strength, electrical insulation, good mechanical strength, and stiffness. This study proposes an air-cooled battery module comprised of sixteen prismatic batteries incorporating an ERB layer between the batteries. To compare the performance of the ERB-based air-cooling system, two other air-cooling structures are also assessed in this study. Three-dimensional numerical models for the three cases are established in this paper, and the heat dissipation processes of the battery module under varying discharge rates (1C, 2C, and 5C) are simulated and analyzed to comprehensively evaluate the performance of the different cooling systems. Comparative simulations reveal that incorporating ERB into the battery assembly significantly reduces battery surface temperatures and promotes temperature uniformity across individual batteries and the entire pack at various discharge rates. Notably, under 5C discharge conditions, the ERB-based thermal management system achieves a maximum battery surface temperature increase of 16 °C and a maximum temperature difference of 8 °C between batteries. Additionally, this paper also analyzes the impact of battery arrangement on air-cooling system performance. Therefore, further optimization of the structural design or the integration of supplementary cooling media might be necessary for such demanding conditions. Full article
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72 pages, 10521 KiB  
Review
Emerging Capacitive Materials for On-Chip Electronics Energy Storage Technologies
by Bukola Jolayemi, Gaetan Buvat, Pascal Roussel and Christophe Lethien
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090317 - 7 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1006
Abstract
Miniaturized energy storage devices, such as electrostatic nanocapacitors and electrochemical micro-supercapacitors (MSCs), are important components in on-chip energy supply systems, facilitating the development of autonomous microelectronic devices with enhanced performance and efficiency. The performance of the on-chip energy storage devices heavily relies on [...] Read more.
Miniaturized energy storage devices, such as electrostatic nanocapacitors and electrochemical micro-supercapacitors (MSCs), are important components in on-chip energy supply systems, facilitating the development of autonomous microelectronic devices with enhanced performance and efficiency. The performance of the on-chip energy storage devices heavily relies on the electrode materials, necessitating continuous advancements in material design and synthesis. This review provides an overview of recent developments in electrode materials for on-chip MSCs and electrostatic (micro-/nano-) capacitors, focusing on enhancing energy density, power density, and device stability. The review begins by discussing the fundamental requirements for electrode materials in MSCs, including high specific surface area, good conductivity, and excellent electrochemical stability. Subsequently, various categories of electrode materials are evaluated in terms of their charge storage mechanisms, electrochemical performance, and compatibility with on-chip fabrication processes. Furthermore, recent strategies to enhance the performance of electrode materials are discussed, including nanostructuring, doping, heteroatom incorporation, hybridization with other capacitive materials, and electrode configurations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Supercapacitors)
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10 pages, 2636 KiB  
Article
NaBH4-Poly(Ethylene Oxide) Composite Electrolyte for All-Solid-State Na-Ion Batteries
by Xiaoxuan Luo and Kondo-Francois Aguey-Zinsou
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090316 - 5 Sep 2024
Viewed by 880
Abstract
A disordered sodium borohydride (NaBH4) environment to facilitate Na+ mobility was achieved by partially hydrolyzing NaBH4 and this significantly improved Na+ ionic conductivity to 10−3 S cm−1 at 75 °C. The reaction rate of NaBH4 [...] Read more.
A disordered sodium borohydride (NaBH4) environment to facilitate Na+ mobility was achieved by partially hydrolyzing NaBH4 and this significantly improved Na+ ionic conductivity to 10−3 S cm−1 at 75 °C. The reaction rate of NaBH4 self-hydrolysis, however, is determined by several parameters, including the reaction temperature, the molar ratio between NaBH4 and H2O, and the pH value; but these factors are hard to control. In this paper, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), capable of retaining H2O through hydrogen bonding, was used in an attempt to better control the amount of H2O available for NaBH4 self-hydrolysis. This strategy led to the ionic conductivity of 1.6 × 10−3 S cm−1 at 45 °C with a Na+ transference number of 0.54. The amorphous nature of the PEO matrix in hydrolyzed NaBH4 is also believed to provide a conduction path for fast Na+ conduction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries)
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18 pages, 12341 KiB  
Article
State of Health Estimation of Li-Ion Battery via Incremental Capacity Analysis and Internal Resistance Identification Based on Kolmogorov–Arnold Networks
by Jun Peng, Xuan Zhao, Jian Ma, Dean Meng, Shuhai Jia, Kai Zhang, Chenyan Gu and Wenhao Ding
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090315 - 4 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1735
Abstract
An accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) of Li-ion batteries is critical for the efficient and safe operation of battery-powered systems. Traditional methods for SOH estimation, such as Coulomb counting, often struggle with sensitivity to measurement noise and time-consuming tests. This [...] Read more.
An accurate estimation of the state of health (SOH) of Li-ion batteries is critical for the efficient and safe operation of battery-powered systems. Traditional methods for SOH estimation, such as Coulomb counting, often struggle with sensitivity to measurement noise and time-consuming tests. This study addresses this issue by combining incremental capacity (IC) analysis and a novel neural network, Kolmogorov–Arnold Networks (KANs). Fifteen features were extracted from IC curves and a 2RC equivalent circuit model was used to identify the internal resistance of batteries. Recursive least squares were used to identify the parameters of the equivalent circuit model. IC features and internal resistance were considered as input variables to establish the SOH estimation model. Three commonly used machine learning methods (BP, LSTM, TCN) and two hybrid algorithms (LSTM-KAN and TCN-KAN) were used to establish the SOH estimation model. The performance of the five models was compared and analyzed. The results demonstrated that the hybrid models integrated with the KAN performed better than the conventional models, and the LSTM-KAN model had higher estimation accuracy than that of the other models. The model achieved a mean absolute error of less than 0.412% in SOH prediction in the test and validation dataset. The proposed model does not require complete charge and discharge data, which provides a promising tool for the accurate monitoring and fast detection of battery SOH. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)
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27 pages, 1768 KiB  
Article
Physics-Based Equivalent Circuit Model Motivated by the Doyle–Fuller–Newman Model
by Stephan Bihn, Jonas Rinner, Heiko Witzenhausen, Florian Krause, Florian Ringbeck and Dirk Uwe Sauer
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090314 - 4 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1066
Abstract
This work introduces a sophisticated impedance-based equivalent circuit model of the electrochemical processes inside a lithium-ion battery cell. The influence on the electrical voltage response is derived and merged into a mathematical calculation framework describing all fundamental phenomena inside a battery. The parameters, [...] Read more.
This work introduces a sophisticated impedance-based equivalent circuit model of the electrochemical processes inside a lithium-ion battery cell. The influence on the electrical voltage response is derived and merged into a mathematical calculation framework describing all fundamental phenomena inside a battery. The parameters, whose sole influences on the electric behaviour cannot be separated at the cell level, are summarised to derive a model with purely electrical quantities. We significantly reduce the model order compared to a physicochemical model while ensuring a minimal approximation error. Utilising the findings from the model derivation, we develop a parameterisation procedure to separate the individual processes occurring in the battery and to support a hypothesis of the assignment to positive and negative electrodes based on several indicia. For this purpose, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and correlation analysis are used to calculate the distribution of the time constants. The final parameterised model has physics-based parameter variations, which ensures that the simulation over broad ranges of temperatures and states of charge results in a reasonable voltage response. The model’s physical basis enables extrapolation beyond the measured operation area, and the model verification shows less than a 10 mV root mean square error over a wide range of operations. Full article
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16 pages, 3351 KiB  
Article
Impacts of Curing-Induced Phase Segregation in Silicon Nanoparticle-Based Electrodes
by Zoey Huey, G. Michael Carroll, Jaclyn Coyle, Patrick Walker, Nathan R. Neale, Steven DeCaluwe and Chunsheng Jiang
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090313 - 3 Sep 2024
Viewed by 993
Abstract
We report the investigation of silicon nanoparticle composite anodes for Li-ion batteries, using a combination of two nm-scale atomic force microscopy-based techniques: scanning spreading resistance microscopy for electrical conduction mapping and contact resonance and force volume for elastic modulus mapping, along with scanning [...] Read more.
We report the investigation of silicon nanoparticle composite anodes for Li-ion batteries, using a combination of two nm-scale atomic force microscopy-based techniques: scanning spreading resistance microscopy for electrical conduction mapping and contact resonance and force volume for elastic modulus mapping, along with scanning electron microscopy-based energy dispersion spectroscopy, nanoindentation, and electrochemical analysis. Thermally curing the composite anode—made of polyethylene oxide-treated Si nanoparticles, carbon black, and polyimide binder—reportedly improves the anode electrochemical performance significantly. This work demonstrates phase segregation resulting from thermal curing, where alternating bands of carbon and silicon active material are observed. This electrode morphology is retained after extensive cycling, where the electrical conduction of the carbon-rich bands remains relatively unchanged, but the mechanical modulus of the bands decreases distinctly. These electrical and mechanical factors may contribute to performance improvement, with carbon bands serving as a mechanical buffer for Si deformation and providing electrical conduction pathways. This work motivates future efforts to engineer similar morphologies for mitigating capacity loss in silicon electrodes. Full article
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18 pages, 6032 KiB  
Article
Evaluating a Fe-Based Metallic Glass Powder as a Novel Negative Electrode Material for Applications in Ni-MH Batteries
by Oscar Sotelo, John Henao, Carlos Poblano, Bernardo Campillo, Erick Castañeda, Néstor Flores, Arturo Molina and Horacio Martínez
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090312 - 1 Sep 2024
Viewed by 864
Abstract
Metallic glasses (MGs) are a type of multicomponent non-crystalline metallic alloys obtained by rapid cooling, which possess several physical, mechanical, and chemical advantages against their crystalline counterparts. In this work, an Fe-based MG is explored as a hydrogen storage material, especially, due to [...] Read more.
Metallic glasses (MGs) are a type of multicomponent non-crystalline metallic alloys obtained by rapid cooling, which possess several physical, mechanical, and chemical advantages against their crystalline counterparts. In this work, an Fe-based MG is explored as a hydrogen storage material, especially, due to the evidence in previous studies about the capability of some amorphous metals to store hydrogen. The evaluation of an Fe-based MG as a novel negative electrode material for nickel/metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries was carried out through cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge–discharge tests. A conventional LaNi5 electrode was also evaluated for comparative purposes. The electrochemical results obtained by cyclic voltammetry showed the formation of three peaks, which are associated with the formation of Fe oxides/oxyhydroxides and hydroxides. Cycling charge/discharge tests revealed activation of the MG electrode. The highest discharge capacity value was 173.88 mAh/g, but a decay in its capacity was observed after 25 cycles, contrary to the LaNi5, which presents an increment of the discharge capacity for all the current density values evaluated, reached its value maximum at 183 mAh/g. Characterization analyses performed by X-ray diffraction, Scanning Electron Microscopy and Raman Spectroscopy revealed the presence of corrosion products and porosity on the surface of the Fe-based MG electrodes. Overall, the Fe-based MG composition is potentially able to work as a negative electrode material, but degradation and little information about storage mechanisms means that it requires further investigation. Full article
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20 pages, 5652 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of Plasma-Reduced Graphene Oxide/Lithium Titanate Oxide Composite and Its Application as Lithium-Ion Capacitor Anode Material
by Chan-Gyo Kim, Suk Jekal, Zambaga Otgonbayar, Jiwon Kim, Yoon-Ho Ra, Jungchul Noh, Won-Chun Oh and Chang-Min Yoon
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090311 - 31 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1107
Abstract
A plasma-reduced graphene oxide/lithium titanate oxide (PrGO/LTO) composite is prepared as an anode material to enhance the performance of lithium-ion capacitors (LICs). The PrGO/LTO composite is synthesized by mixing graphene oxide (GO) and LTO, followed by a series of freeze-drying and plasma-treatment processes. [...] Read more.
A plasma-reduced graphene oxide/lithium titanate oxide (PrGO/LTO) composite is prepared as an anode material to enhance the performance of lithium-ion capacitors (LICs). The PrGO/LTO composite is synthesized by mixing graphene oxide (GO) and LTO, followed by a series of freeze-drying and plasma-treatment processes. PrGO forms a porous three-dimensional (3D) structure with a large surface area, effectively preventing the restacking of PrGO while covering LTO. The GO/LTO mixing ratio is controlled to optimize the final structure for LIC applications. In lithium-ion half-cell assembly, the PrGO/LTO-based anode with an 80% mixing ratio exhibits the highest specific capacity of 73.0 mAh g−1 at 20 C. This is attributed to the optimized ratio for achieving high energy density from LTO and high power density from PrGO. In a LIC full-cell comprising PrGO/LTO as the anode and activated carbon as the cathode, the energy and power densities at 1 A g−1 are 40.3 Wh kg−1 and 2000 W kg−1, respectively, with a specific capacitance of 36.3 F g−1 and capacitance retention of 94.1% after 2000 cycles. Its outstanding performance, obtained from incorporating 3D-structured PrGO with LTO at an optimized ratio, lowers the cell resistance and provides efficient lithium-ion diffusion pathways. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Energy Density Supercapacitors: Acquisition, Characterization, and Application)
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16 pages, 6980 KiB  
Article
Fluorinated Hollow Porous Carbon Spheres as High-Performance Cathode Material for Primary Battery
by Yan Zou, Ke Yan, Liangxue Bao, Qi Xia, Huixin Chen and Hongjun Yue
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090310 - 31 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1108
Abstract
Fluorinated carbon cathode materials have extremely high theoretical specific energy among known cathode materials of lithium primary batteries. Nevertheless, current fluorinated carbon cannot meet the performance demands of future applications due to the rate performance. This work innovatively applies hollow carbon spheres with [...] Read more.
Fluorinated carbon cathode materials have extremely high theoretical specific energy among known cathode materials of lithium primary batteries. Nevertheless, current fluorinated carbon cannot meet the performance demands of future applications due to the rate performance. This work innovatively applies hollow carbon spheres with a porous structure as carbon sources to prepare fluorinated hollow porous carbon spheres (FHPCS) with high energy density and power density. The porous structure provides more reaction sites for the fluorination process and also shortens the diffusion path of lithium ions during the discharge. Additionally, the hollow porous structure offers more interfacial contact areas and reduces volumetric expansion during discharge reactions. The Li/CFx primary battery has a maximum specific energy of 2007 Wh kg−1 and a maximum power density of 30,400 W kg−1 and can have a capacity retention rate of 80.8% at a current density of 16 A g−1. In addition, FHPCS also has the highest specific energy of 1999 Wh kg−1 and 1711 Wh kg−1 in Na/CFx and K/CFx primary batteries, respectively. The diffusion efficiency of an alkali metal ion is analyzed by the different discharge depths with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and galvanostatic intermittent titration technique. This effort introduces a new high-performance fluorinated carbon featuring a hollow porous structure and puts forward an innovative approach to designing fluorinated carbon materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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20 pages, 3693 KiB  
Article
Stress and Strain Characterization for Evaluating Mechanical Safety of Lithium-Ion Pouch Batteries under Static and Dynamic Loadings
by Edris Akbari and George Z. Voyiadjis
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090309 - 31 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1103
Abstract
The crashworthiness of electric vehicles depends on the response of lithium-ion cells to significant deformation and high strain rates. This study thoroughly explores the mechanical behavior due to damage of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells, focusing on Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) and [...] Read more.
The crashworthiness of electric vehicles depends on the response of lithium-ion cells to significant deformation and high strain rates. This study thoroughly explores the mechanical behavior due to damage of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells, focusing on Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) types during both quasi-static indentation and dynamic high-velocity penetration tests. Employing a novel approach, a hemispherical indenter addresses gaps in stress–strain data for pouch cells, considering crucial factors like strain rate/load rate and battery cell type. In the finite element method (FEM) analysis, the mechanical response is investigated in two stages. First, a viscoplastic model is developed in Abaqus/Standard to predict the indentation test. Subsequently, a thermomechanical model is formulated to predict the high-speed-impact penetration test. Considering the high plastic strain rate of the LIB cell, adiabatic heating effects are incorporated into this model, eliminating heat conduction between elements. Addressing a notable discrepancy from prior research, this work explores the substantial reduction in force observed when transitioning from a single cell to a stack of two cells. The study aims to unveil the underlying reasons and provide insights into the mechanical behavior of stacked cells. Full article
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14 pages, 5804 KiB  
Article
The Quantum-Inspired Evolutionary Algorithm in the Parametric Optimization of Lithium-Ion Battery Housing in the Multiple-Drop Test
by Adam Rurański and Wacław Kuś
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090308 - 31 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1020
Abstract
Recent developments in lithium-ion batteries have improved their capacity, which allows them to be used in more applications like power tools. However, they also carry higher risks, such as thermal runaway, which can happen if they are damaged. To make these batteries safer, [...] Read more.
Recent developments in lithium-ion batteries have improved their capacity, which allows them to be used in more applications like power tools. However, they also carry higher risks, such as thermal runaway, which can happen if they are damaged. To make these batteries safer, it is important to improve the design of their housings subjected to multiple drops during their use. This article introduces a new method for optimizing the design of lithium-ion battery housings using a Quantum-Inspired Evolutionary Algorithm (QEA). Previously used mainly in theoretical settings, the authors have adapted QEA for practical engineering tasks. Multiple-drop test simulations were performed, and QEA was used to identify the best housing designs that minimize damage. To support this, a program was developed that automates all drop tests and rebuilds the model. The damage is obtained on the basis of the finite element method (FEM) analyses. The findings show that the algorithm successfully identified designs with the least damage during these tests. This research helps make battery housings safer and explores new uses for QEA in mechanical engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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29 pages, 10356 KiB  
Review
Review of Flame Behavior and Its Suppression during Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Yikai Mao, Yin Chen and Mingyi Chen
Batteries 2024, 10(9), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10090307 - 30 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1750
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are extensively utilized in electric vehicles (EVs), energy storage systems, and related fields due to their superior performance and high energy density. However, battery-related incidents, particularly fires, are increasingly common. This paper aims to first summarize the flame behavior of [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are extensively utilized in electric vehicles (EVs), energy storage systems, and related fields due to their superior performance and high energy density. However, battery-related incidents, particularly fires, are increasingly common. This paper aims to first summarize the flame behavior of LIBs and then thoroughly examine the factors influencing this behavior. Based on these factors, methods for suppressing LIB flames are identified. The factors affecting flame behavior are categorized into two groups: internal and external. The paper then reviews the flame behavior within battery modules, particularly in confined spaces, from both experimental and simulation perspectives. Furthermore, methods for suppressing battery flames are classified into active and passive techniques, allowing for a more comprehensive analysis of their effectiveness. The paper concludes with a summary and outlook, offering new insights for future research and contributing to the development of safer and more efficient battery systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lithium-Ion Battery Safety and Fire)
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