Philosophies

11 pages, 219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

What Might a Theory of Causation Do for Sport?

by Evan Thomas Knott

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020034 - 18 Jun 2019

Viewed by 4877

The purpose of this research is to articulate how a theory of causation might be serviceable to a theory of sport. This article makes conceptual links between Bernard Suits’ theory of game-playing, causation, and theories of causation. It justifies theories of causation while [...] Read more.

The purpose of this research is to articulate how a theory of causation might be serviceable to a theory of sport. This article makes conceptual links between Bernard Suits’ theory of game-playing, causation, and theories of causation. It justifies theories of causation while drawing on connections between sport and counterfactuals. It articulates the value of theories of causation while emphasizing possible limitations. A singularist theory of causation is found to be more broadly serviceable with particular regard to its analysis of sports. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophical Issues in Sport Science)

9 pages, 193 KiB

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Why You Don’t Have to Choose between Accuracy and Human Officiating (But You Might Want to Anyway)

by S. Seth Bordner

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020033 - 14 Jun 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4302

Abstract

Debates about the role of technology in sports officiating assume that technology would, ceteris paribus, improve accuracy over unassisted human officiating. While this is largely true, it also presents a false dilemma: that we can have accurately officiated sports or human officials, [...] Read more.

Debates about the role of technology in sports officiating assume that technology would, ceteris paribus, improve accuracy over unassisted human officiating. While this is largely true, it also presents a false dilemma: that we can have accurately officiated sports or human officials, but not both. What this alleged dilemma ignores is that the criteria by which we measure accuracy are also up for revision. We could have sports that are so defined as to be easily (or at least more accurately) judged by human officials. A case from the recent history of science provides an instructive example. I argue that if we insist on human officials, we can still aim for maximal accuracy, though there will be tradeoffs. With compelling reasons to want accuracy in officiating, however, these tradeoffs effectively serve as a reductio against the use of human officials unaided by technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophical Issues in Sport Science)

18 pages, 1065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analogy in Terms of Identity, Equivalence, Similarity, and Their Cryptomorphs

by Marcin J. Schroeder

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020032 - 12 Jun 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4473

Abstract

Analogy belongs to the class of concepts notorious for a variety of definitions generating continuing disputes about their preferred understanding. Analogy is typically defined by or at least associated with similarity, but as long as similarity remains undefined this association does not eliminate [...] Read more.

Analogy belongs to the class of concepts notorious for a variety of definitions generating continuing disputes about their preferred understanding. Analogy is typically defined by or at least associated with similarity, but as long as similarity remains undefined this association does not eliminate ambiguity. In this paper, analogy is considered synonymous with a slightly generalized mathematical concept of similarity which under the name of tolerance relation has been the subject of extensive studies over several decades. In this approach, analogy can be mathematically formalized in terms of the sequence of binary relations of increased generality, from the identity, equivalence, tolerance, to weak tolerance relations. Each of these relations has cryptomorphic presentations relevant to the study of analogy. The formalism requires only two assumptions which are satisfied in all of the earlier attempts to formulate adequate definitions which met expectations of the intuitive use of the word analogy in general contexts. The mathematical formalism presented here permits theoretical analysis of analogy in the contrasting comparison with abstraction, showing its higher level of complexity, providing a precise methodology for its study and informing philosophical reflection. Also, arguments are presented for the legitimate expectation that better understanding of analogy can help mathematics in establishing a unified and universal concept of a structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

23 pages, 2254 KiB

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Analogy and Communication

by Enrique Dussel

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020031 - 5 Jun 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3442

Abstract

Analogy makes possible the dialogue between people. This dialogue, at the intercultural level and from distinct ontological comprehensions of life, cannot be achieved from a univocal pretension of meaning. Analogy permits, especially at the rhetoric level of Political Philosophy, an adequate interpretation of [...] Read more.

Analogy makes possible the dialogue between people. This dialogue, at the intercultural level and from distinct ontological comprehensions of life, cannot be achieved from a univocal pretension of meaning. Analogy permits, especially at the rhetoric level of Political Philosophy, an adequate interpretation of such complex concepts as people, state or rights. A semantics of these concepts by similarity allows us to advance in the process towards a better interpretation of the other interlocutor’s expression though never reaching identity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

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6 pages, 167 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chips and Showmanship: Running and Technology

by Pam R. Sailors

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020030 - 5 Jun 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3268

Abstract

A brief review and classification of technology in general begins the paper, followed by an application of the classification to two specific marathon case studies: the 2018 Boston marathon and the 2017 Nike Breaking2 Project marathon. Then concepts from an array of sport [...] Read more.

A brief review and classification of technology in general begins the paper, followed by an application of the classification to two specific marathon case studies: the 2018 Boston marathon and the 2017 Nike Breaking2 Project marathon. Then concepts from an array of sport philosophers are discussed to suggest an explanation for why each of the case studies strikes us as problematic. The conclusion provides a reasonable explanation for our misgivings, as well as an indication of how we might evaluate sporting endeavors in the face of increasing technological innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophical Issues in Sport Science)

7 pages, 199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Logical Problems in Analysis of Analogy

by Jan Woleński

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020029 - 3 Jun 2019

Viewed by 2789

Abstract

The paper discusses some logical problems concerning analogy. The traditional understanding of analogy as proportion (proportion) is inadequate, at least if proportionality is taken in mathematical sense. This situation is clear if we considered various special cases of analogy for instance analogia legis [...] Read more.

The paper discusses some logical problems concerning analogy. The traditional understanding of analogy as proportion (proportion) is inadequate, at least if proportionality is taken in mathematical sense. This situation is clear if we considered various special cases of analogy for instance analogia legis and analogia juris. Since analogy assumes a similarity of analogata (items being or investigated) as analogical, a general analysis of analogical relation must begin with the concept of similarity. It can be defined as possessing a common property. This idea is formalized by devices borrowed from logic and set theory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

10 pages, 197 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sports Tournaments and Social Choice Theory

by Rory Smead

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020028 - 30 May 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3100

Abstract

Sports tournaments provide a procedure for producing a champion and ranking the contestants based on game results. As such, tournaments mirror aggregation methods in social choice theory, where diverse individual preferences are put together to form an overall social preference. This connection allows [...] Read more.

Sports tournaments provide a procedure for producing a champion and ranking the contestants based on game results. As such, tournaments mirror aggregation methods in social choice theory, where diverse individual preferences are put together to form an overall social preference. This connection allows us a novel way of conceptualizing sports tournaments, their results, and significance. I argue that there are genuine intransitive dominance relationships in sports, that social choice theory provides a framework for understanding rankings in such situations and that these considerations provide a new reason to endorse championship pluralism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophical Issues in Sport Science)

14 pages, 248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Reflex to Reflection: Two Tricks AI Could Learn from Us

by Jean-Louis Dessalles

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020027 - 24 May 2019

Viewed by 3811

Abstract

Deep learning and other similar machine learning techniques have a huge advantage over other AI methods: they do function when applied to real-world data, ideally from scratch, without human intervention. However, they have several shortcomings that mere quantitative progress is unlikely to overcome. [...] Read more.

Deep learning and other similar machine learning techniques have a huge advantage over other AI methods: they do function when applied to real-world data, ideally from scratch, without human intervention. However, they have several shortcomings that mere quantitative progress is unlikely to overcome. The paper analyses these shortcomings as resulting from the type of compression achieved by these techniques, which is limited to statistical compression. Two directions for qualitative improvement, inspired by comparison with cognitive processes, are proposed here, in the form of two mechanisms: complexity drop and contrast. These mechanisms are supposed to operate dynamically and not through pre-processing as in neural networks. Their introduction may bring the functioning of AI away from mere reflex and closer to reflection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophy and Epistemology of Deep Learning)

25 pages, 6853 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interaction Histories and Short-Term Memory: Enactive Development of Turn-Taking Behaviours in a Childlike Humanoid Robot

by Frank Broz, Chrystopher L. Nehaniv, Hatice Kose and Kerstin Dautenhahn

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020026 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4135

Abstract

In this article, an enactive architecture is described that allows a humanoid robot to learn to compose simple actions into turn-taking behaviours while playing interaction games with a human partner. The robot’s action choices are reinforced by social feedback from the human in [...] Read more.

In this article, an enactive architecture is described that allows a humanoid robot to learn to compose simple actions into turn-taking behaviours while playing interaction games with a human partner. The robot’s action choices are reinforced by social feedback from the human in the form of visual attention and measures of behavioural synchronisation. We demonstrate that the system can acquire and switch between behaviours learned through interaction based on social feedback from the human partner. The role of reinforcement based on a short-term memory of the interaction was experimentally investigated. Results indicate that feedback based only on the immediate experience was insufficient to learn longer, more complex turn-taking behaviours. Therefore, some history of the interaction must be considered in the acquisition of turn-taking, which can be efficiently handled through the use of short-term memory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Embodied Artificial Intelligence: The (r-)evolution of the embodied approach in AI)

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6 pages, 169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Analogy in the Development of Intercultural Competence

by Yuko Abe

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020025 - 22 May 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2839

Abstract

Analogy is defined in many different ways. In this paper it is understood as a process in which the familiar structure of a direct experience in one situation is used to make conclusions regarding an expected experience within another structure. This process is [...] Read more.

Analogy is defined in many different ways. In this paper it is understood as a process in which the familiar structure of a direct experience in one situation is used to make conclusions regarding an expected experience within another structure. This process is based on the perceived similarity of the structures, not on rational, theoretical analysis of the relations between their components and the mechanisms of their interactions. The use of analogy relies on the engagement of intuitive recognition of the structural similarity between different instances of experience. The engagement of intuition does not preclude rational study and the development of strategies for using analogy, as part of this work focuses on rational learning about our own experience. Analogy plays two very different roles in this paper; as the main subject of this study, which focuses on the development of intercultural competence, and as a methodological instrument for carrying out and sharing the results of this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

15 pages, 297 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonconscious Cognitive Suffering: Considering Suffering Risks of Embodied Artificial Intelligence

by Steven Umbrello and Stefan Lorenz Sorgner

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020024 - 17 May 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 9196

Abstract

Strong arguments have been formulated that the computational limits of disembodied artificial intelligence (AI) will, sooner or later, be a problem that needs to be addressed. Similarly, convincing cases for how embodied forms of AI can exceed these limits makes for worthwhile research [...] Read more.

Strong arguments have been formulated that the computational limits of disembodied artificial intelligence (AI) will, sooner or later, be a problem that needs to be addressed. Similarly, convincing cases for how embodied forms of AI can exceed these limits makes for worthwhile research avenues. This paper discusses how embodied cognition brings with it other forms of information integration and decision-making consequences that typically involve discussions of machine cognition and similarly, machine consciousness. N. Katherine Hayles’s novel conception of nonconscious cognition in her analysis of the human cognition-consciousness connection is discussed in relation to how nonconscious cognition can be envisioned and exacerbated in embodied AI. Similarly, this paper offers a way of understanding the concept of suffering in a way that is different than the conventional sense of attributing it to either a purely physical state or a conscious state, instead of grounding at least a type of suffering in this form of cognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Embodied Artificial Intelligence: The (r-)evolution of the embodied approach in AI)

13 pages, 213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Something’s Got to Give: Reconsidering the Justification for a Gender Divide in Sport

by Andria Bianchi

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020023 - 15 May 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 14721

Abstract

The question of whether transgender athletes should be permitted to compete in accordance with their gender identity is an evolving debate. Most competitive sports have male and female categories. One of the primary challenges with this categorization system, however, is that some transgender [...] Read more.

The question of whether transgender athletes should be permitted to compete in accordance with their gender identity is an evolving debate. Most competitive sports have male and female categories. One of the primary challenges with this categorization system, however, is that some transgender athletes (and especially transgender women) may be prevented from competing in accordance with their gender identity. The reason for this restriction is because of the idea that transgender women have an unfair advantage over their cisgender counterparts; this is seen as a problem since sports are typically guided a principle called ‘the skill thesis’, which suggests that sports are supposed to determine who is most skillful by maintaining a fair starting point. In this paper, I argue that if the skill thesis ought to be maintained and there continues to exist no conclusive evidence in support of unfair advantages possessed by trans women, then we may want to re-consider the gender binary in sport. Rather than having male/female categories, it may make more sense to categorize athletes based other sport-specific factors (e.g., height, weight, etc.). This may help to maintain the skill thesis while at the same time removing potentially unfair and discriminatory barriers against transgender athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophical Issues in Sport Science)

45 pages, 497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Philosophy in Reality: Scientific Discovery and Logical Recovery

by Joseph E. Brenner and Abir U. Igamberdiev

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020022 - 14 May 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7850

Abstract

Three disciplines address the codified forms and rules of human thought and reasoning: logic, available since antiquity; dialectics as a process of logical reasoning; and semiotics which focuses on the epistemological properties of the extant domain. However, both the paradigmatic-historical model of knowledge [...] Read more.

Three disciplines address the codified forms and rules of human thought and reasoning: logic, available since antiquity; dialectics as a process of logical reasoning; and semiotics which focuses on the epistemological properties of the extant domain. However, both the paradigmatic-historical model of knowledge and the logical-semiotic model of thought tend to incorrectly emphasize the separation and differences between the respective domains vs. their overlap and interactions. We propose a sublation of linguistic logics of objects and static forms by a dynamic logic of real physical-mental processes designated as the Logic in Reality (LIR). In our generalized logical theory, dialectics and semiotics are recovered from reductionist interpretations and reunited in a new synthetic paradigm centered on meaning and its communication. Our theory constitutes a meta-thesis composed of elements from science, logic and philosophy. We apply the theory to gain new insights into the structure and role of semiosis, information and communication and propose the concept of ‘ontolon’ to define the element of reasoning as a real dynamic process. It is part of a project within natural philosophy, which will address broader aspects of the dynamics of the growth of civilizations and their potential implications for the information society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Natural Philosophy and Philosophies - Part 2)

7 pages, 2269 KiB

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Applying Philosophy to Refereeing and Umpiring Technology

by Harry Collins

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020021 - 9 May 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4723

Abstract

This paper draws an earlier book (with Evans and Higgins) entitled Bad Call: Technology’s Attack on Referees and Umpires and How to Fix It (hereafter Bad Call) and its various precursor papers. These show why it is that current match officiating aids [...] Read more.

This paper draws an earlier book (with Evans and Higgins) entitled Bad Call: Technology’s Attack on Referees and Umpires and How to Fix It (hereafter Bad Call) and its various precursor papers. These show why it is that current match officiating aids are unable to provide the kind of accuracy that is often claimed for them and that sports aficianados have been led to expect from them. Accuracy is improving all the time but the notion of perfect accuracy is a myth because, for example, lines drawn on sports fields and the edges of balls are not perfectly defined. The devices meant to report the exact position of a ball—for instance ‘in’ or ‘out’ at tennis—work with the mathematically perfect world of virtual reality, not the actuality of an imperfect physical world. Even if ball-trackers could overcome the sort of inaccuracies related to fast ball speeds and slow camera frame-rates the goal of complete accuracy will always be beyond reach. Here it is suggested that the purpose of technological aids to umpires and referees be looked at in a new way that takes the viewers into account. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophical Issues in Sport Science)

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7 pages, 16703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rilkean Memories and the Self of a Robot

by Antonio Chella

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020020 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3428

Abstract

This paper discusses the concept of Rilkean memories, recently introduced by Mark Rowlands, to analyze the complex intermix of hardware and software related to the self of a robot. The Rilkean memory of an event is related to the trace of that episode [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the concept of Rilkean memories, recently introduced by Mark Rowlands, to analyze the complex intermix of hardware and software related to the self of a robot. The Rilkean memory of an event is related to the trace of that episode left in the body of the individual. It transforms the act of remembering into behavioral and bodily dispositions, thus generating the peculiar behavioral style of the individual, which is at the basis of her autobiographical self. In the case of long-life operating robots, a similar process occurs: the software of the robot has to cope with the changes that happened in the body of the robot because of damaging events in its operational life. Thus, the robot, in compensating the damages of its body, acquires a particular behavioral style. The concept of Rilkean memory is essential in self-adapting robotics technologies where human intervention on a robot is not possible, and the robot must cope with its faults, and also in applications concerning green robotics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Embodied Artificial Intelligence: The (r-)evolution of the embodied approach in AI)

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11 pages, 223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Casuistic Reasoning, Standards of Evidence, and Expertise on Elite Athletes’ Nutrition

by Saana Jukola

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020019 - 25 Apr 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5465

Abstract

This paper assesses the epistemic challenges of giving nutrition advice to elite athletes in light of recent philosophical discussion concerning evidence-based practice. Our trust in experts largely depends on the assumption that their advice is based on reliable evidence. In many fields, the [...] Read more.

This paper assesses the epistemic challenges of giving nutrition advice to elite athletes in light of recent philosophical discussion concerning evidence-based practice. Our trust in experts largely depends on the assumption that their advice is based on reliable evidence. In many fields, the evaluation of the reliability of evidence is made on the basis of standards that originate from evidence-based medicine. I show that at the Olympic or professional level, implementing nutritional plans in real-world competitions requires contextualization of knowledge in a way that contravenes the tenets of evidence-based thinking. Nutrition experts need to be able to combine and apply evidence from multiple sources, including the previous successes and failures of particular athletes. I argue that in this sense, the practice of elite sport nutrition embodies casuistic reasoning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophical Issues in Sport Science)

13 pages, 235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Art in the Face of Evil: Analogies between the Conceptions of Two French Resistance Fighters

by Estelle Carciofi

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020018 - 22 Apr 2019

Viewed by 3302

Abstract

I present two conceptions of the human being and art: that of Renaud—the main fictional character of a short novel written by Vercors—and that of Albert Camus. Although these French resistance fighters experienced the same war, the same terrible events surprisingly lead them [...] Read more.

I present two conceptions of the human being and art: that of Renaud—the main fictional character of a short novel written by Vercors—and that of Albert Camus. Although these French resistance fighters experienced the same war, the same terrible events surprisingly lead them to opposite extremes: the first one to despair and the rejection of art perceived as an unbearable lie, the second one to hope and to artistic commitment. Analogical reasoning allows us to show both the similarities and the distinctions between these two men or, more precisely, between what they tell us about human beings and art. Thanks to this, it is easier to understand the essential role the artist plays and his duty towards humankind. Moreover, in the work of Albert Camus, we will see that revolt is—and must be—connected to love. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

13 pages, 267 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spurious, Emergent Laws in Number Worlds

by Cristian S. Calude and Karl Svozil

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020017 - 16 Apr 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3581

Abstract

We study some aspects of the emergence of lógos from xáos on a basal model of the universe using methods and techniques from algorithmic information and Ramsey theories. Thereby an intrinsic and unusual mixture of meaningful and spurious, emerging laws surfaces. The spurious, [...] Read more.

We study some aspects of the emergence of lógos from xáos on a basal model of the universe using methods and techniques from algorithmic information and Ramsey theories. Thereby an intrinsic and unusual mixture of meaningful and spurious, emerging laws surfaces. The spurious, emergent laws abound, they can be found almost everywhere. In accord with the ancient Greek theogony one could say that lógos, the Gods and the laws of the universe, originate from “the void,” or from xáos, a picture which supports the unresolvable/irreducible lawless hypothesis. The analysis presented in this paper suggests that the “laws” discovered in science correspond merely to syntactical correlations, are local and not universal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Natural Philosophy and Philosophies - Part 2)

18 pages, 3578 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Quale of Time

by Cosmin Vișan

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020016 - 11 Apr 2019

Viewed by 4520

Abstract

Time is one of the greatest subjects of interest to the disciplines of both Science and Philosophy, being seen to have a greater importance in the workings of reality than other entities. In this paper, a phenomenological analysis of time based on the [...] Read more.

Time is one of the greatest subjects of interest to the disciplines of both Science and Philosophy, being seen to have a greater importance in the workings of reality than other entities. In this paper, a phenomenological analysis of time based on the general workings of the emergent structure of consciousness will be done, and time will be shown to be no different than any other qualia. It will be shown that, like any other qualia, time is an emergent level of consciousness, manifesting all the properties of emergence: inheritance of qualities from the previous levels, top-down influence in levels received from the higher levels and top-down influence in levels impressed on the lower levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies of Time, Media and Contemporaneity)

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20 pages, 251 KiB

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Linguistic Meaning, Rigid Designators, and Legal Philosophy

by Matthew McManus

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020015 - 3 Apr 2019

Viewed by 3179

Abstract

This essay is intended to engage some of the controversies that have emerged in legal philosophy concerning the theory of linguistic meaning we should adopt with reference to the law. In particular, I will focus on two theories of linguistic meaning that have [...] Read more.

This essay is intended to engage some of the controversies that have emerged in legal philosophy concerning the theory of linguistic meaning we should adopt with reference to the law. In particular, I will focus on two theories of linguistic meaning that have opposing positions both on the nature of meaning, and the consequences this might have for law and legal objectivity. The first can be called plain meaning view. The plain meaning theory claims that the meaning of legal terms is a settled thing, and it is the duty of legal officials, especially judges, to simply apply that meaning to a given case in hand. In modern American jurisprudence, the plain meaning theory is often associated with various originalist figures, most notably the late Antonin Scalia who called his iteration of the plain meaning theory “textualism.” For this reason, I will largely be focusing on Justice Scalia’s account. The second theory of linguistic meaning I will be examining can be called the indeterminate theory. The indeterminate theory holds that there is no set or foundational meaning to any semantic term in the law which can be objectively applied by legal practitioners. Full article

14 pages, 230 KiB

Open AccessEssay

The Problem of Meaning in AI and Robotics: Still with Us after All These Years

by Tom Froese and Shigeru Taguchi

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020014 - 3 Apr 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 12233

Abstract

In this essay we critically evaluate the progress that has been made in solving the problem of meaning in artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics. We remain skeptical about solutions based on deep neural networks and cognitive robotics, which in our opinion do not [...] Read more.

In this essay we critically evaluate the progress that has been made in solving the problem of meaning in artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics. We remain skeptical about solutions based on deep neural networks and cognitive robotics, which in our opinion do not fundamentally address the problem. We agree with the enactive approach to cognitive science that things appear as intrinsically meaningful for living beings because of their precarious existence as adaptive autopoietic individuals. But this approach inherits the problem of failing to account for how meaning as such could make a difference for an agent’s behavior. In a nutshell, if life and mind are identified with physically deterministic phenomena, then there is no conceptual room for meaning to play a role in its own right. We argue that this impotence of meaning can be addressed by revising the concept of nature such that the macroscopic scale of the living can be characterized by physical indeterminacy. We consider the implications of this revision of the mind-body relationship for synthetic approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Embodied Artificial Intelligence: The (r-)evolution of the embodied approach in AI)

12 pages, 5653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Logical Analogies: Interpretations, Oppositions, and Probabilism

by Walter Redmond

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020013 - 2 Apr 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3033

Abstract

I present two logical systems to show the “analogy of proportionality” common to several interpretations: modality (necessity and possibility), quantification, truth-functional relations, moral attitudes (deontic logic), states of knowledge (epistemic logic), and states of belief (doxastic logic). To display the two underlying analogical [...] Read more.

I present two logical systems to show the “analogy of proportionality” common to several interpretations: modality (necessity and possibility), quantification, truth-functional relations, moral attitudes (deontic logic), states of knowledge (epistemic logic), and states of belief (doxastic logic). To display the two underlying analogical relations, I call upon the originally Scholastic convention, recently put to use again, of using squares, hexagons, and octagons “of opposition”. A combined epistemic–deontic logic happens to be found in the traditional “probabilist” theory of the “good conscience”, and I shall then briefly explain how this is so. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

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9 pages, 176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Embodiment: The Ecology of Mind

by Paul Dumouchel

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020012 - 27 Mar 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3422

Abstract

Following a suggestion from G. Bateson, this article enquires into the consequence of the idea of embodiment in philosophy of mind, taking seriously the notion of an ecology of mind. In the first half of this article, after distinguishing between the biological and [...] Read more.

Following a suggestion from G. Bateson, this article enquires into the consequence of the idea of embodiment in philosophy of mind, taking seriously the notion of an ecology of mind. In the first half of this article, after distinguishing between the biological and the systemic approaches to ecology, I focus on three characteristics of the systemic approach. First, that a system is an abstract object that is multiply embodied in a collection of physically distinct heterogeneous objects. Second, that there is a form of circular causality between the level of the elements and that of the system as a whole, as some characteristics of the elements partake in the explanation of how the system functions, while the requirement of the system explains why the elements have the characteristics that they do. The third is the ontological uncertainty that we sometimes find in ecology, where the same term is used to designate both a central component of the ecological system and the system as a whole. In the second half, beginning with a critique of the theory of mind approach, I look into the consequences of conceiving that mind is embodied in a collection of physically distinct heterogeneous objects that interact as elements of a system, rather than enclosed in an individual body. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers of Embodied Artificial Intelligence: The (r-)evolution of the embodied approach in AI)

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