Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Issue 4 (December 2022) – 25 articles

Tuber magnatum Picco is the most expensive of the truffles and a great deal of research has been carried out in an attempt to solve the mysteries of its ecology and biology. However, considerable work remains to be done particularly on those secrets of its life cycle that remain a mystery. It is known that T. magnatum is heterothallic, but it has yet to be determined how fertilization occurs between the two strains of different mating types. It is also known that the white truffle is an ectomycorrhizal fungus, and its mycorrhizas can be produced in greenhouses, but then they seem to disappear in the field. The role of other soil microorganisms, fungi and bacteria, on its soil mycelial development and fructification is intriguing but is far from being completely understood. All these uncertainties have made the cultivation of T. magnatum extremely difficult and only recently have we had the scientific proofs that it is possible. Even so, many questions remain unanswered and the management practices of T. magnatum plantations are still to be better defined to also enable the taming of this truffle. Full article

This article aims to relate intrinsic aspects of urban planning that are becoming increasingly important both within the international scientific debate and within urban planning tools. These aspects are land consumption and land value capture. Their centrality is given by the growing importance that in recent years have assumed the aspects related to the sustainable development of settlements. This article aims to summarize the main theories regarding the relationship between the efficiency of land use and the policies of capturing public value. The reference scenario is dictated by sustainable development policies that, if contextualized in the sphere of urban development, imply a rational use of resources to ensure the formation of resilient, safe, and inclusive settlements. This aspect introduces the existing link between urban form and sustainability. It is therefore understood how the achievement of the targets set at the international level are implemented in local urban policies. For this reason, many scholars have argued that the challenge of adapting to new pressures, such as climate change, necessarily means creating efficient urban settlements. The question becomes: which land use can be considered more efficient than the others? This article intends to answer this question by investigating the main theories that have tried to define the mechanisms and methods of comparison of different urban development scenarios. The article goes on to reconstruct the steps that have helped to evaluate urban development according to purely fiscal aspects up to the introduction of qualitative aspects related to public value. To do so, it analyzes the terms and tools related to the concepts of public value and the capture of public value and attempts to synthesize the main theories and research in the sector. Full article

There are various neurological manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Recent data suggest a connection between hemifacial paralysis, or Bell’s palsy, and COVID-19. Although the etiology of Bell’s palsy is unknown, the leading proposed etiology is viral in nature. Since the onset of the pandemic, numerous studies have investigated the relationship between Bell’s palsy, COVID-19 infection, and COVID-19 vaccination. The researchers studied the current literature on the topic of COVID-19 as it relates to Bell’s palsy. Full article

The action potential (AP) conduction in nerve fibers plays a crucial role in transmitting nociceptive information from the periphery to the cerebral cortex. Nerve AP conduction inhibition possibly results in analgesia. It is well-known that many analgesics suppress nerve AP conduction and voltage-dependent sodium and potassium channels that are involved in producing APs. The compound action potential (CAP) recorded from a bundle of nerve fibers is a guide for knowing if analgesics affect nerve AP conduction. This entry mentions the inhibitory effects of clinically used analgesics, analgesic adjuvants, and plant-derived analgesics on fast-conducting CAPs and voltage-dependent sodium and potassium channels. The efficacies of their effects were compared among the compounds, and it was revealed that some of the compounds have similar efficacies in suppressing CAPs. It is suggested that analgesics-induced nerve AP conduction inhibition may contribute to at least a part of their analgesic effects. Full article

This entry paper considers the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the processes and functions of art and architecture libraries in North America and distinguishes between temporary changes and those that will endure and are here to stay. COVID-19 impacted all aspects of human life, placing tremendous stress on institutions and individuals globally. Academic libraries responded to the crisis by bringing resources to communities remotely and keeping constituents engaged to maintain a sense of normalcy. While libraries in schools of architecture, art, and design, responded similarly to other academic libraries, they also had unique needs. This entry paper is informed by two surveys of art and architecture library staff and faculty, alongside a preliminary literature review. The results of the first survey were published in Art Documentation and the results and analysis of the second survey are forthcoming. Both temporary and long-standing changes were implemented to ensure uninterrupted service in academic institutions. Temporary solutions included extending loan periods, quarantining materials, enforcing social distancing, and expanding document delivery. Changes that will endure post-pandemic include the increased acquisition of digital materials, remote instruction and reference consultations, increased resource access, and the utilization of a vast array of technologies. Full article

The effect of minimum wages on employment is a mature, continuously researched topic. This study discusses the core theoretical approaches on the relationship between the minimum wage and employment, which is reflected by the empirical results from the international literature. Moreover, it presents the findings of the most recent research and the results of meta-analyses of this issue. While the theoretical approaches and outcomes of empirical studies vary, the meta-analysis demonstrates the lack of a significant correlation between minimum wages and employment. In light of the latest developments and meta-regressions, the literature does not provide a clear and definite sign of the relationship, but the trend seems to be driven towards a negative direction of the impact for the more sensitive groups. Therefore, further light needs to be shed onto this issue. Full article

Eruca sativa Miller (Brassicaceae) is an insect-pollinated diploid annual species which grows spontaneously in the entire Mediterranean basin from semi-arid to arid-hot conditions and is cultivated in Northern America, Europe, and Asia as either salad or oilseed crop. Here, some essential background was provided on this versatile crop, summarizing the present status of Eruca sativa research focusing on the wealth of bioactive ingredients in its seeds, which may find exploitation in agriculture, in the food industries and as nutraceuticals for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Fatty acids of Eruca sativa seed oil, gums, glucosinolates and soluble and insoluble phenol and flavonoid fractions in the defatted press cake are the main bioactive compounds considered to date by the scientific literature and that deserve attention for their physical and biological activities. Full article

A secondary battery (accumulator) employing molten metals or molten metal alloys as active masses at both electrodes and a molten salt as electrolyte in between is called an all-liquid-metal accumulator battery (LMB). Separation of the electrodes and the liquid electrolyte based on segregation caused by different densities and immiscibility of the materials is a characteristic feature. High coulometric storage capabilities of the molten-metal electrodes combined with the relatively low cell voltage and the high stability of the system and the operational principle yield a secondary battery suitable for grid applications and, in particular, for power-quality management and large-scale stationary storage. Full article

In a globalized context, characterized by dominant trends towards the homogenization of food products and taste, local and niche productions play a vital role in creating effective strategies of territorial development. Albanian food heritage is definitely one of the most various of the Western Balkans. The Ottoman domination and the Mediterranean position just in front of Italy led to an incredible mix of cultures and traditions. As Albania is a candidate to join the European Union, it has a stronger opportunity of protecting its excellent-quality food products with PDO and PGI marks. Moreover, Albania’s territory shares fundamental features with Gargano lakes, especially with relation to the county of Dibër, where Ulez and Shkopet lakes are located. Both the areas’ traditional food products are and can be an important factor of sustainable and participatory development, and the present contribution aims at exploring possible paths of territorial development at a cross-border level, in the framework of a sort of “dialogue” between the two regions through Geographical Indications (GIs). Full article

Mobile operators’ data are one type of Big Data. These are any data about events related to the use of a mobile phone. These data include subscriber identifiers and associated time and location attributes. Big Data in general usually includes datasets with sizes beyond the ability of commonly used software tools to capture, curate, manage, and process data within a tolerable elapsed time. Big Data can be described by the following key characteristics: volume, variety, velocity, veracity, value, variability etc. Mobile operators’ data are supplied by the Mobile Network Operators. The main distinguishing features of the operator are, firstly, the possession of a state license to use the radio frequency spectrum, and, secondly, the possession or control over the elements of the network infrastructure necessary to provide services to subscribers in the authorized radio frequency spectrum. The smallest structural territorial element for cellular communication systems is a cell; its dimensions can be different (250 by 250 m, 500 by 500 m, etc.). Full article

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have great potential in various areas such as medicine, cancer therapy and diagnostics, biosensing, and material science. In particular, magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles are extensively used for numerous bioapplications due to their biocompatibility, high saturation magnetization, chemical stability, large surface area, and easy functionalization. This paper describes magnetic nanoparticle physical and biological properties, emphasizing synthesis approaches, toxicity, and various biomedical applications, focusing on the most recent advancements in the areas of therapy, diagnostics, theranostics, magnetic separation, and biosensing. Full article

Glaucoma, a neurodegenerative disease, has a varied pathogenesis scenario, including elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), and hypoxic conditions in the retina. Consequently, degenerating optic axons at the optic nerve head are observed clinically when extensive damage has already occurred. Following elevated IOP, changes in retinal ganglion cells lead to apoptosis immediately followed by degeneration of their optic axons. Degradation of axons leads to cupping of the optic nerve head and visual field losses. Here we emphasize that it is the retinal ganglion cells that are initial targets of elevated IOP, and, together with hyperactivity of retinal astrocytes, create the ischemic conditions which represent the earliest sign in the pathogenesis of glaucoma. Full article

The global infectious disease COVID-19 is caused by SARS-CoV-2, a new member of the Coronaviridae family. Though presented as a novel disease that primarily affects the respiratory system, multi-organ involvement has been well-noticed and documented since the beginning of the pandemic. When performed properly with adequate safety measures, autopsy provides the most valuable information to decipher the pathogenesis of this novel disease, therefore providing a basis for clinical management. In addition to reviewing the macroscopic changes in organs and tissues involved in COVID-19, the relevant microscopic alterations and possible pathogenesis are also discussed. Full article

SARS-CoV-2, a member of the betacoronavirus group and causative agent of COVID-19, is a virus affecting multiple systems, not only the respiratory. One of the systems affected by the virus is the central nervous system, with neuropathological studies reporting a wide set of morphological phenomena—neuroinflammation, vascular and blood-brain barrier alterations, neurodegeneration, and accelerated aging, while contradicting data is present on the direct neuroinvasive potential of the virus and active viral replication within neurons. The depicted changes, other than an acute effect (which may contribute to the death of the patient) also have chronic sequelae in the context of post-COVID syndrome cognitive impediments, sleep, and mood disorders. The following chapter describe the basic neuropathological aspects of SARS-CoV-2 as based on the present evidence in scientific literature and propose the term COVEP—COVID-associated encephalopathy—to unite the undisputed effects of the infection on nervous system morphology and function. Full article

Blended learning (BL) is a teaching model that combines face-to-face activities in the classroom with activities outside the classroom through the introduction of technology that is computer-based, distance, or mobile learning, among others. There are several BL models to adopt, depending on the importance and extent to which the technology is used. It brings great benefits to the learner and involves teachers in the design of new teaching methods. Full article

Binder materials are needed to keep particles of active masses in electrodes for batteries and supercapacitors together and to ensure their adherence to the current collector. Mostly synthetic polymeric materials are used. Because they are electrochemically inert, they do not add to the storage capacity of the electrode. Intrinsically conducting polymers ICPs such as polyaniline, polythiophene or polypyrrole can provide these functions also. They show electronic conduction because of mobile charge carriers generated in them by oxidation or reduction. In addition to providing the binder-function, they improve electronic conductance of the electrode mass because of their inherent conductivity and can also contribute to the charge storage capability of the electrode in the range of potential of the redox activity of ICPs in the used electrolyte solution. In most reports on the application of ICPs as component of conductive binders, their incorporation results in enhanced specific capacity and notable improvement of C-rate capability of electrodes. In addition, ICP binders provide partial or complete wrapping of grains of active electrode materials, which effectively inhibits the interaction with the electrolyte, suppressing side reactions and degradation of functional properties. Full article

Due to the dynamic nature and complexity of road traffic, road safety is one of the most demanding social challenges. Therefore, contemporary road safety strategies incorporate a multidisciplinary and comprehensive approaches to address this problem and improve the safety of each individual element, i.e., the human, vehicle, and road. Traffic control devices are an important part of road infrastructure, among which road markings and road signs play a significant role. In general, road markings and signs represent basic means of communication between the road authorities and road users and, as such, provide road users with necessary information about the rules, warnings, obligations, and other information related to the upcoming situations and road alignment. The aim of this entry is to briefly present the main functions and characteristics of road markings and signs, and their role in road safety. In addition, practical issues and future trends and directions regarding road markings and signs are discussed. Full article

Antifungal drugs prevent topical or invasive fungal infections (mycoses) either by stopping growth of fungi (termed fungistatic) or by killing the fungal cells (termed fungicidal). Antibiotics also prevent bacterial infections through either bacteriostatic or bactericidal mechanisms. These microorganisms successfully develop resistance against conventional drugs that are designed to kill or stop them from multiplying. When a fungus no longer responds to antifungal drug treatments and continues to grow, this is known as antifungal drug resistance. Bacteria have an amazing capacity to become resistant to antibiotic action as well, and the effectiveness of the scarce antifungal arsenal is jeopardised by this antibiotic resistance, which poses a severe threat to public health. Full article

Coronaviruses are a large group of RNA viruses, the most notable representatives of which are SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. Human coronavirus infections were first documented in the 1960s, when members causing seasonal common colds were successfully replicated in human embryonal trachea and kidney cell cultures and classified based on electron microscopy. The history of coronaviruses stretched far back to that point, however, with some representatives causing disease in animals identified several decades prior and evolutionary data pointing towards the origin of this viral group more than 55 million years ago. In the short time period of research since they were discovered, coronaviruses have shown significant diversity, genetic peculiarities and varying tropism, resulting in the three identified causative agents of severe disease in humans—SARS, MERS and the most recent one, COVID-19, which has surpassed the previous two due to causing a pandemic resulting in significant healthcare, social and political consequences. Coronaviruses are likely to have caused pandemics long before, such as the so-called Asian or Russian influenza. Despite being epitheliotropic viruses and predominantly affecting the respiratory system, these entities affect multiple systems and organs, including the kidneys. In the kidneys, they actively replicate in glomerular podocytes and epithelial cells of the tubules, resulting in acute kidney injury, seen in a significant percentage of severe and fatal cases. Furthermore, the endothelial affinity of the viruses, resulting in endotheliitis, increases the likelihood of thrombotic microangiopathy, damaging the kidneys in a two-hit mechanism. As such, recently, COVAN has been a suggested nomenclature change indicating renal involvement in coronavirus infections and its long-lasting consequences. Full article

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel entry in the betacoronaviridae group of coronaviruses. This is the second member of this group, and the third of the family overall to emerge in the last 20 years, which has caused significant health concerns due to the clinical severity and spread of the disease it causes—coronavirus disease identified in 2019 (COVID-19). While initially emerging as a respiratory disease, and while most cases experience symptoms predominantly from this system, SARS-CoV-2 has emerged as a multisystem pathogen. From a pathomorphological point of view, the severity of changes in the respiratory system can be summed up as diffuse alveolar damage—desquamation of the alveolar epithelium with exudative and proliferative changes—pulmonary hyaline membranes, Clara cell hyperplasia, squamous cell metaplasia, and fibrosis. The second most prominent way the disease affects the lung is through endotheliitis—damage to the endothelial cells of the pulmonary vasculature, predominantly affecting the medium and large caliber blood vessels that cause the well-established clinical phenomenon of thrombosis/thromboembolism of the pulmonary vasculature. As the spread of the disease continues with the emergence of new variants and the number of cases continues to grow, including a large percentage of recurrent cases, it is essential to remember that the viral effects are not only acute but, due to the proliferative phenomena, can produce chronic sequelae. Therefore, in the background of dwindling publication interest, it is critical to focus on the histopathological aspects of the pulmonary disease, with the goal of better understanding the effects of the virus on the organism and identifying probable future complications after infection. Full article

Market power is a multidisciplinary concept, bringing together aspects from law and economics, which are necessary to be understood in order to assess market situations with a global dimension. Globalization is an economic and social phenomenon which comes together with enhanced market power for global actors. Factors influencing or limiting market power, such as corporate social responsibility, are important to understand in order to assess market power situations. According to European Union Law, the concept of market power is reflected in abuse of dominance, which is an anti-competitive behavior prohibited in the Common Market of the EU, as defined in Article—102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU. An interdisciplinary approach based on elements of law and economics is thus necessary when assessing market power of global actors. Full article

The relationship between COVID-19 and peace has been considered from a variety of perspectives. In addition, different empirical studies on the link between the pandemic and peace in conflict-affected areas exist. However, little work has been performed on examining these studies to highlight key findings on the theme of COVID-19 and peace in conflict-affected areas. A conflict-affected area is a country, or part of a country, where widespread violence or armed conflict was present when COVID-19 emerged in December 2019, or that was transitioning from recent armed conflict to peace by the time the disease arose. What do we know, so far, about how peace has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in conflict-affected areas? To address this question, this paper begins by recognizing the multidimensionality of peace and clarifying that the main aspects of peace in conflict-affected areas being considered in the article are relations between conflict parties, peace efforts, and peace processes. Afterwards, the paper discusses existing evidence regarding the impact of COVID-19 and state responses to it on these components of peace in conflict-affected areas. The conflict-affected areas considered include Afghanistan, Colombia, Iraq, Israel-Palestine, Libya, Myanmar, Nigeria, South Sudan, Syria, the Philippines, Yemen, and other zones. The central finding of the article is that the existing studies on COVID-19 and peace in conflict-affected areas present mixed findings. On the one hand, the virus generated opportunities for cooperation between conflict parties in some cases, such as in the West Bank and Gaza Strip of Israel-Palestine. However, on the other hand, it created conditions that enabled conflict and impeded peace efforts and processes in many or most conflict-affected areas. The paper explains that two factors that determined how the disease affected peace in conflict-affected and non-conflict-affected areas are the pre-COVID-19 political and socio-economic conditions in an area, and how state and non-state actors responded to the pandemic. The article closes with a summary of the discussion and identification of its major limitations. Full article

This review explores the practical use of the (Observer)—Reporter—Interpreter—Manager—Expert ((O)RIME) model in the assessment of clinical reasoning skills and for the potential to provide effective feedback that can be used in clinical teaching of veterinary learners. For descriptive purposes, we will use the examples of bovine left displaced abomasum and apparently anestric cow. Bearing in mind that the primary purpose of effective clinical teaching is to prepare graduates for a successful career in clinical practice, all effort should be made to have veterinary learners, at graduation, achieve a minimum of Manager level competency in clinical encounters. Contrastingly, there is relatively scant literature concerning clinical teaching in veterinary medicine. There is even less literature available on strategies and frameworks for assessment that can be utilized in the different settings that the veterinary learners are exposed to during their education. Therefore, our intent for this review is to stimulate and/or facilitate discussion and/or research in this important area. The primary aim of preparing this review was to describe a teaching technique not currently used in the teaching of veterinary medicine, with potential to be useful. Full article

Buildings account for nearly 40% of energy use in global contexts and climatic conditions tend to contribute to consumption. Human activities are also influential in energy consumption and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions that lead to global warming. Residential buildings are responsible for a considerable share. There are countries aggravating this situation by heavily relying on fossil fuels. Oil-rich countries are allocating an energy subsidy to the public, making energy cheaper for their consumers. This may result in negative consequences, including households’ inefficient energy use behaviours in countries such as Iran. Beyond the impact of energy subsidy allocation, this study aims to explore the climatic and non-climatic factors that affect the increase in domestic electricity use, particularly in Iran. For this purpose, this study begins with a comparative analysis between countries with and without the energy subsidy to examine the trends in domestic electricity use. Afterwards, the tendency of households’ electricity use in Iran will be analysed in consideration of climatic and non-climatic factors among several provinces in Iran. This study exploited published statistical data for the analysis. The results indicate the tendency of increased domestic electricity use due to the country’s generous subsidy offered to the public as well as climatic and non-climatic factors in Iran. These results may provide an opportunity for future studies regarding building occupants’ inefficient energy use behaviours for policy enactment in Iran and other oil-rich countries. Full article

Apoptosis, programmed cell death, has a central role in developmental biology and in maintaining the equilibrium of renewing tissues. A founding member of the Bcl-2 family of regulatory proteins for apoptosis is Bcl-2, which is encoded by the BCL2 gene. Caspase-3 shares typical features with all caspases, including the role of acting as a crucial mediator of apoptosis. Full article