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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Welfare".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 April 2024) | Viewed by 26558

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. William Winlow

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Guest Editor

1. Institute of Ageing and Chronic Diseases, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
2. Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy
Interests: synapses; invertebrate ganglia; aquatic invertebrates; crustacea; Mollusca; neuroplasticity; neurophysiology; electrical synapses; neuroethology; anesthesia

Prof. Dr. Jennifer Mather

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Guest Editor

Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
Interests: cephalopods; sentience; welfare; human-animal interactions

Prof. Anna Di Cosmo

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Guest Editor

Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
Interests: invertebrates; pain; stress; nociception; sentience; cognition; cephalopods; crustaceans; mollusks; model invertebrates; aquaculture welfare; research ethics
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over the last few years, it has become clear that advanced invertebrates are self-aware, sentient beings with the ability to feel pain, however that is defined. This view is supported by animal welfare legislation in several countries. Although many invertebrates exhibit the ability to learn and have memory functions, there are major structural and physiological differences between animal groups. Some investigators argue that these differences imply the inability of advanced invertebrates to feel pain, even though they exhibit self-protective behavior. Whether this is true or not, it is surely the responsibility of human beings, particularly scientists, to take the welfare of invertebrates seriously and to treat them well in captivity and in the wild. Here, we propose to consider invertebrate welfare in breeding or holding facilities, in laboratories and under natural conditions where possible. The effects of effluents on animal populations will also be considered. Where experimentation on advanced invertebrates is necessary, appropriate methods of anesthesia will also be discussed.

Prof. Dr. William Winlow
Prof. Dr. Jennifer Mather
Prof. Anna Di Cosmo
Guest Editors

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Keywords

invertebrates
welfare
handling
transport
laboratory maintenance
anaesthesia
environmental issues
airborne or waterborne effluents

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 184 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Postscript to Invertebrate Welfare: “We Have Met the Enemy and He Is Us”

by William Winlow, Jennifer Mather and Anna Di Cosmo

Animals 2024, 14(14), 2082; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14142082 - 17 Jul 2024

Viewed by 846

Abstract

Through this collection of papers, we have considered in depth the effects that humans have on invertebrate welfare in a variety of contexts [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

6 pages, 205 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Ethics and Invertebrates: The Problem Is Us

by Jennifer A. Mather

Animals 2023, 13(18), 2827; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13182827 - 6 Sep 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2223

Abstract

In the last few decades, science has begun to make great strides at understanding how varied, fascinating, and intelligent invertebrate animals are. Because they are poorly known, the invertebrates that make up about 98% of the animals on the planet have been overlooked. Because they are seen as both simple and unattractive, children and their teachers, as well as the general public, do not think they need care. Because until recently we did not know they can be both intelligent and sensitive—bees can learn from each other, butterflies can navigate huge distances, octopuses are smart, and lobsters can feel pain—we have to give them the consideration they deserve. This collection of papers should help us to see how the lives of invertebrates are tightly linked to ours, how they live, and what they need in terms of our consideration and care. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

Research

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11 pages, 908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Acetic Acid and Morphine in Shore Crabs, Carcinus maenas: Implications for the Possibility of Pain in Decapods

by Stuart Barr and Robert W. Elwood

Animals 2024, 14(11), 1705; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14111705 - 6 Jun 2024

Viewed by 880

Abstract

Noxious chemicals, coupled with morphine treatment, are often used in studies on pain in vertebrates. Here we show that injection of morphine caused several behavioural changes in the crab, Carcinus maenas, including reduced pressing against the sides of the enclosure and more rubbing and picking at the mouth parts and, at least for a short time, more defensive displays. Subsequent injection of acetic acid into one rear leg caused rubbing of the injected leg and the injected leg was held vertically off the ground. These activities directed at or involving the specific leg are consistent with previous observations of directed behaviour following noxious stimuli and are consistent with the idea that decapods experience pain. Further, acetic acid but not injection of water induced autotomy of the injected leg in these animals. Because autotomy is temporally associated with directed behaviour, it is possible that the autotomy is a pain-related response. Acetic acid is clearly a noxious substance when applied to decapods. However, morphine had no effect on the activities associated with acetic acid injection and thus there is no evidence for an analgesic effect. Further, the injection of acetic acid did not interfere with behavioural effects of morphine. The activities directed towards the site of injection are like those observed with injection, or with external application, of various noxious substances and the present study adds to a growing body of knowledge about possible pain in decapods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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11 pages, 624 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Invisible Invertebrates: The Welfare of Invertebrates in Public Aquaria

by Kerry Perkins

Animals 2023, 13(23), 3620; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13233620 - 23 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1351

Abstract

Awareness of welfare issues within animal collections is increasing as information becomes more accessible for staff and the public. A knowledge gap remains when considering the welfare of invertebrates, particularly when housed in public aquaria. TripAdvisor comments were analyzed for 485 worldwide aquariums. The public focused on anthropogenic features or charismatic organisms within collections. Invertebrate welfare was only presented in 18% of negative welfare comments compared with the 51% of represented vertebrates and 31% of negative general welfare comments. The UK and USA reported a greater number of perceived invertebrate welfare issues. Greater dissemination of information between aquarists and scientists should be encouraged to drive welfare standards and improve husbandry. In addition, incorporating input from invertebrate aquarists while utilizing welfare toolkits are vital for improving overall standards if we are to have greater representation of invertebrate welfare in public aquaria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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8 pages, 1114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Isoflurane and Adjunctive Magnesium Chloride Provides Fast, Effective Anaesthetization of Octopus vulgaris

by Anna Di Cosmo, Valeria Maselli, Emanuela Cirillo, Mariangela Norcia, Heethaka K. S. de Zoysa, Gianluca Polese and William Winlow

Animals 2023, 13(22), 3579; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13223579 - 20 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1526

Abstract

A wide variety of substances have been used to anaesthetise invertebrates, but many are not anaesthetics and merely incapacitate animals rather than preventing pain. In essence, the role of an ideal general anaesthetic is to act as a muscle relaxant, an analgesic, an anaesthetic, and an amnesic. To achieve all these properties with a single substance is difficult, and various adjuvants usually need to be administered, resulting in a cocktail of drugs. In a clinical setting, the vast majority of patients are unaware of surgery being carried out and have no memory of it, so they can claim to have felt no pain, but this is much more difficult to demonstrate in invertebrates. Here, we show that 1% MgCl_2, a muscle relaxant_, is a useful adjuvant for the clinical anaesthetic isoflurane on Octopus vulgaris when applied alone in seawater for 10 min before the clinical anaesthetic. After this, full anaesthesia can be achieved in 5 min using 1% isoflurane insufflated into the saline still containing MgCl₂. Full recovery takes place rapidly in about 10 to 15 min. The depth of anaesthesia was monitored using changes in respiratory rate, chromatophore pattern, and withdrawal movements of the arms and siphon. This methodology reduces stress on the animal and minimises the quantity of anaesthetic used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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20 pages, 4696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Welfare of Captive Group-Housed Cockroaches, Gromphadorhina oblongonota

by Danielle Free and Sarah Wolfensohn

Animals 2023, 13(21), 3351; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13213351 - 27 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2330

Abstract

The welfare of invertebrates under human care is of growing concern, particularly with the increasing interest in insect farming as an environmentally sustainable means of producing food. Additionally, individual welfare monitoring systems can be time-consuming and impractical for larger groups, particularly when individual animals are difficult to identify. It is, therefore, imperative to develop a validated system for monitoring terrestrial invertebrate welfare at a group level. The Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (AWAG) is an objective welfare-monitoring tool that has been approved for use with a wide range of species. This study modified the AWAG for large group-level welfare assessments and successfully trialled it on a terrestrial invertebrate species, a group of captive male Gromphadorhina oblongonota. The modified template evaluated the group’s welfare by scoring changes to 12 factors that could be tracked over time. The results highlight that the welfare of G. oblongonota is likely to be influenced by environmental and social factors, and inform practical improvements in G. oblongonota care that will result in improved welfare. The findings also demonstrate an efficient way to assess the welfare of invertebrates at the group level, and given the recent UK legislation (Animal Welfare (Sentience) Bill, 2022) plus the emerging interest in invertebrate farming, our findings hold timely significance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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14 pages, 2257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Artificial Light at Night on Fitness-Related Traits of Sea Urchin (Heliocidaris crassispina)

by Xiuwen Xu, Zexianghua Wang, Xiuqi Jin, Keying Ding, Jingwen Yang and Tianming Wang

Animals 2023, 13(19), 3035; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13193035 - 27 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2371

Abstract

Limited data are available regarding the effects of elevated coastal artificial light at night (ALAN) on intertidal echinoderms. In this study, we investigated the behavioral, morphological, and physiological responses of the sea urchin (Heliocidaris crassispina) after continuous exposure to ALAN at light intensities of 0.1, 300, and 600 Lux for 6 weeks. Our findings revealed that ALAN at 300 Lux substantially reduced food consumption, Lantern weight, and gonadosomatic index (GSI). On the other hand, ALAN at 600 Lux notably prolonged the righting and covering response times and elevated the 5-HIAA/5-HT ratio, while concurrently decreasing food consumption, body weight, Lantern weight, GSI, and Pax6 gene expression. These results indicated that continuous exposure to ALAN could cause an adverse effect on fitness-related traits, including behavioral responses, growth, reproductive performance, and photoreception of sea urchins. The present study provides new insights on the impact of light pollution on echinoderms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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15 pages, 3011 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Negative Welfare Measures for Wild Invertebrates: The Case for Octopuses

by Michaella P. Andrade, Charles Morphy D. Santos, Mizziara M. M. De Paiva, Sylvia L. S. Medeiros, C. E. O’Brien, Françoise D. Lima, Janaina F. Machado and Tatiana S. Leite

Animals 2023, 13(19), 3021; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13193021 - 26 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2581

Abstract

Welfare metrics have been established for octopuses in the laboratory, but not for octopuses living in the wild. Wild octopuses are constantly exposed to potentially harmful situations, and the ability to assess the welfare status of wild octopuses could provide pertinent information about individuals’ health and species’ resilience to stressors. Here, we used underwater photos and videos to identify injuries and stress-related behaviors in wild Octopus insularis in a variety of contexts, including interacting with fishermen, interacting with other octopuses and fish, proximity to predators, in den, foraging, and in senescence. We adapted established metrics of octopus welfare from the laboratory to these wild octopuses. In addition to observing all of the stress measures, we also identified two previously unknown measures associated with decreased welfare: (1) a half white eye flash and (2) a half-and-half blotch body pattern. More than half of the individuals analyzed had arm loss, and almost half of the individuals had skin injuries. We also observed that irregular chromatophore expression and abnormal motor coordination were associated with interactions with fishermen. This is the first study to apply measures of welfare from the laboratory to wild octopuses. Our results may also aid in the identification of welfare measures for other wild invertebrates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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Review

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14 pages, 671 KiB

Open AccessReview

Increasing Risks to the Health of the Invertebrates—Balancing between Harm and Benefit

by Tatiana V. Kuznetsova, Valentina A. Kudryavtseva and Larisa L. Kapranova

Animals 2024, 14(11), 1584; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14111584 - 27 May 2024

Viewed by 826

Abstract

The article discusses the issue of extensive use of detergents and sanitizers in the time of new challenges associated with the COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic. These agents could pose threats to the existence of free-living invertebrates as essential components of the ecosystem. The biological effects of the mentioned classes of substances, their metabolites, and combined effects in the mixture have not been studied enough. The main challenges in trying to balance the threats and benefits of using such substances are the lack of knowledge of the biological effects of these products, the gaps in testing invertebrates’ responses, and changes in environment-related regulations to minimize risks to animals and humans. Numerous studies in this field still leave research gaps, particularly concerning the combined toxicity of well-known and widely used disinfectants, surfactants, and heavy metals, posing potential future challenges. Additionally, the review identified the need for additional testing of invertebrates for their sensitivity to disinfectants and surfactants of different compositions, including improved (non-invasive) methods, studies for early life stages, and comparative studies of species resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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17 pages, 1382 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ethical Considerations for Echinoderms: New Initiatives in Welfare

by Augusto César Crespi-Abril and Tamara Rubilar

Animals 2023, 13(21), 3377; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13213377 - 31 Oct 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2605

Abstract

This paper explores the ethical considerations surrounding research on echinoderms, a group of invertebrates that has recently garnered attention in the scientific community. The importance of responsible animal handling and the need for an ethical framework that encompasses echinoderms are emphasized. The 3Rs principle, advocating for the replacement of conscious living vertebrates with non-sentient material in research, is discussed as a guiding tool in current animal research practices. As invertebrates are generally classified as non-sentient animals, the replacement dimension tends to favor them as prevalent models in experimental research. While it currently lacks the means to assess the mental states of invertebrates, there is undeniable evidence of social behavior in many species, suggesting that a lack of interactions with these organisms could potentially adversely affect their wellbeing. In the last few years, considerable progress has been made in developing an ethical framework that takes invertebrates into account, particularly cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. In this context, we discuss the development of a broader conceptual framework of 5Rs that includes responsibility and respect, which may guide practices ensuring welfare in echinoderms, even in the absence of any particular normative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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20 pages, 528 KiB

Open AccessReview

Behavioural Indicators of Pain and Suffering in Arthropods and Might Pain Bite Back?

by Robert W Elwood

Animals 2023, 13(16), 2602; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13162602 - 12 Aug 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3132

Abstract

Pain in response to tissue damage functions to change behaviour so that further damage is minimised whereas healing and survival are promoted. This paper focuses on the behavioural criteria that match the function to ask if pain is likely in the main taxa of arthropods. There is evidence consistent with the idea of pain in crustaceans, insects and, to a lesser extent, spiders. There is little evidence of pain in millipedes, centipedes, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs but there have been few investigations of these groups. Alternative approaches in the study of pain are explored and it is suggested that studies on traumatic mating, agonistic interactions, and defensive venoms might provide clues about pain. The evolution of high cognitive ability, sensory systems, and flexible decision-making is discussed as well as how these might influence the evolution of pain-like states. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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12 pages, 724 KiB

Open AccessReview

It Is Not Only Data—Freshwater Invertebrates Misused in Biological Monitoring

by Paweł Koperski

Animals 2023, 13(16), 2570; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13162570 - 9 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1664

Abstract

The article presents and discusses the issues of the use of free-living invertebrates to assess the ecological status of freshwater environments with different methods of biological monitoring. Invertebrates are excluded from ethical consideration in the procedures of environmental protection, which results in the killing of many more individuals during sampling than necessary. Biomonitoring is used as a routine method for environmental protection that results in the cruel death of even millions of aquatic animals annually. In many cases, the mortality of animals used in such types of activities has been shown as excessive, e.g., because the vast majority die due to unnecessary subsampling procedures. Improperly planned and conducted procedures which result in excessive mortality have or may have a negative impact on the environment and biodiversity. Their existence as sensitive beings is reduced to an information function; they become only data useful for biomonitoring purposes. The main problem when trying to determine the mortality of invertebrates due to biomonitoring activities and its impact on natural populations seems to be the lack of access to raw data presenting how many animals were killed during sampling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invertebrate Welfare)

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Other

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8 pages, 207 KiB

Open AccessCommentary

The Long Road from Religious and Ethical Traditions to Welfare of Invertebrates

by Jennifer A. Mather

Animals 2024, 14(7), 1005; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14071005 - 26 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1149

Abstract

Ethical behaviour tends to lead to the welfare consideration of animals, but much less so for invertebrates. Indigenous tradition often valued all animals as having an important role in life on the planet, a practical application of modern ecology. The Judaeo–Christian–Islamic tradition postulated ‘man’ as having dominion over all of Earth, resulting in anthropocentrism and careless practices. In contrast, the Buddhist/Hindu belief in rebirth leads to ahisma, or doing no harm. In the face of capitalist systems, practice does not necessarily follow these beliefs, especially in the ‘shepherding’ of domestic animals. Only Jainist beliefs value the lives of all invertebrates. Philosophers are often divorced from the physiological reality of the animals they muse about, and science’s traditions of objectivity and the simplest possible explanation of behaviour led to ignorance of invertebrates’ abilities. Ninety-seven percent of animals on the planet are invertebrates. We have a long way to go to provide moral standing and welfare consideration, which is consistent with the new information about the sentience of some of these animals. Full article

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