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Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2023) | Viewed by 29057

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Dr. Emanuela Bosco

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Department of the Built Environment, Chair of Applied Mechanics, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Interests: computational mechanics; multi-scale and multi-physics modelling; homogenization; damage and fracture; degradation of cultural heritage objects

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The increasing use of scientific disciplines such as chemistry, physics, mechanics, and computer science in the analysis of cultural heritage objects is having a tremendous impact in the field of conservation. This Special Issue aims to provide an overview of the most recent methods and techniques of scientific investigation of cultural heritage materials.

These include (but are not restricted to):

The fundamental understanding of cultural heritage materials’ response, particularly in relation to aging and degradation mechanisms, which affect the life of art objects through time;
The application of data science for the analysis, simulation, and visualization of art objects;
The advances in nondestructive techniques for cultural heritage object analysis;
The monitoring of climate conditions in cultural heritage sites, and their consequences on material aging and degradation;
The relation between the improved understanding of the material behavior and preventive conservation interventions.

Dr. Emanuela Bosco
Guest Editor

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Keywords

conservation science
material aging
degradation
preventive conservation
data science
nondestructive techniques for cultural heritage
climate conditions
preventive conservation

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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10 pages, 553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring of Engineered Stones Used in Artwork Reproductions: Mechanical Characterization by Laser Vibrometry

by Andres Arciniegas, Loïc Martinez, Stéphane Serfaty and Nicolas Wilkie-Chancellier

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(4), 2266; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13042266 - 10 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1426

Abstract

Many museums have been producing reproductions for several years to replace artworks weakened by outdoor exhibition. Among these, in order to imitate the original aesthetic, the French consortium Réunion des Musées Nationaux–Grand Palais has chosen to work from large-format marble sculpture molds to complex composite materials based on resins comprising mineral fillers. However, similar to the original works of art, these reproductions age and deteriorate due to constant outdoor exposure. For this reason, current research focuses on the preventive conservation and monitoring of the structural health of these reconstructed objects. The goal of this paper was to study the resin/mineral powder composite materials used to produce cultural heritage reproductions of sculptures. This work is oriented toward a comparison of the mechanical properties of composite materials used in the replacement of cultural heritage sculptures (for instance, in the Garden of the Palace of Versailles or the Rodin Museum). The objectives were to first characterize the physical and mechanical properties of these materials in order to identify the most suitable material for cultural heritage reproduction, and secondly, to propose a method with minimal contact that obtained equivalent information as analyses performed with conventional ultrasonic techniques. These nondestructive evaluation techniques could be used for laboratory and in situ analyses. Samples of different polymer/mineral powder filler compositions were analyzed by compressional, shear and surface waves, generated by a 1 MHz center frequency ultrasonic transducer. Firstly, the measurements made it possible to evaluate the velocities of the bulk acoustic waves and extract the Young’s modulus of each tested material. Secondly, in order to have minimal contact with the analyzed structure, a laser interferometry system was used to detect waves at the surface and follow their propagation. The results clearly showed the possibility of using this technique to extract mechanical characteristics of composite materials, allowing for selection of material for the reproduction of large-format statues. For different types of polymer resins, the ability of ultrasonic analysis to track the impact of rock powder (marble or slate) on the mechanical properties of these synthetic materials was clearly observed, proving that this technique holds promise for monitoring the structural health of large-format artwork. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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18 pages, 6798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Displacement Measurements of Artworks: New Data Processing for Speckle Pattern Interferometry

by Jessica Auber--Le Saux, Vincent Detalle, Xueshi Bai, Michalis Andrianakis, Nicolas Wilkie-Chancellier and Vivi Tornari

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(23), 11969; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122311969 - 23 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1273

Abstract

Curators have developed preventive conservation strategies and usually try to control the temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH) variations in the museum rooms to stabilise the artworks. The control systems chosen by museums depend on the size and age of the building, the financial means and the strategies that can be adapted. However, there is a lack of methods that can monitor mechanical changes or chemical reactions of objects in real-time or regularly. It would therefore ideally be preferable to monitor each of them to alert them to preserve them. For this purpose, a non-destructive, non-contact, full-field technique, Digital Holographic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (DHSPI), has already been developed and allows direct tracking of changes on the surface of artworks. This technique is based on phase-shifting speckle interferometry and gives the deformation of the surface below the level of the micro-meter of the analysed object. In order to monitor the deformation continuously, a large number of images are acquired by DHSPI and have to be processed. The existing process consists of removing noise from the interferogram, unwrapping this image, and deriving and displaying a 2D or 3D deformation map. In order to improve the time and accuracy of processing the imaging data, a simpler and faster processing method is developed. Using Matlab^®, a denoising methodology for the interference pattern generated during data acquisition is created, based on a stationary wavelet transform. The unwrapped image is calculated using the CPULSI (Calibrated Phase Unwrapping based on Least-Squares and Iterations) algorithm as it gives the fastest results among the tested methods. The unwrapped phase is then transformed into surface displacement. This process performs these steps for each interferogram automatically. It allows access to 2D or 3D deformation maps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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9 pages, 2084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Material Characteristics and Comparison of Silver Foil Glass Beads Excavated from the Tomb of King Muryeong in Korea

by Eun A Kim and Gyu Ho Kim

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(13), 6385; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12136385 - 23 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1659

Abstract

This study investigated the comprehensive characteristics of silver foil beads excavated from the Tomb of King Muryeong, based on composition analysis of the foil and glass and morphological characterization. The major element components of metal foil and glass were investigated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an Energy Dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS). Trace elements were determined using LA-ICP-MS to constrain the source of the raw material. The morphological characteristics of the beads were recognized through an optical microscope. As a result of the analysis, the metal foil was detected as pure in both gold- and silver-colored glass beads. The chemical composition of the glass was determined as a soda glass, with Na⁺ acting as a flux and CaO added as a stabilizer to improve durability. It was confirmed that plant ash was used because MgO and K₂O were found to contain more than 1.5%. Through trace element analysis, it was confirmed that the gold and silver-colored silver foil glass beads were made of plant ash glass using different materials. The content of Fe₂O₃ was significantly higher in the gold-colored silver foil glass beads than in the silver-colored silver foil glass beads. Therefore, it can be interpreted that the gold-colored silver foil glass beads excavated from the tomb of King Muryeong intentionally achieved the appearance of gold foil glass beads by controlling the color of the outer glass. The silver foil glass beads showed morphological differences according to the color of the outer glass. The gold-colored silver foil glass beads were manufactured as single or segment types, but the silver-colored silver foil glass beads were manufactured as segment types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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13 pages, 2419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conditions Influencing Mould Growth for Effective Prevention of Wood Deterioration Indoors

by Edgars Kuka, Dace Cirule, Ingeborga Andersone, Bruno Andersons and Velta Fridrihsone

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 975; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12030975 - 18 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6070

Abstract

Effective prevention of mould growth indoors is still an important topic considering that mould growth is frequently observed in buildings, it causes serious health hazards and can irreversibly damage infected objects. Several studies have been conducted and mould growth models developed. Despite that, some potentially important aspects such as water damage and spore contamination have received only little attention. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of the initial moisture content of wood and spore contamination on mould development indoors. The mould tests were performed in constant temperature (10, 20 and 30 °C) and relative humidity (91% and 97%) conditions. The results show that wetting of wood specimens prior to the test significantly accelerates mould growth at a temperature of 10 °C. For the other temperatures, the effect was insignificant. Similar results were obtained for the test involving dry (conditioned at RH 50%) and conditioned specimens (RH 91% or RH 97%). The results regarding initial spore contamination show that significantly longer periods are required for mould to develop without spore contamination at 10 °C and 20 °C, while at 30 °C the effect is relatively small. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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20 pages, 14851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Practice Methods of Survey Education for HBIM in the Post-Pandemic Era: Case Study of Kuiwen Pavilion in the Temple of Confucius (Qufu, China)

by Wang Xi and Wu Cong

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(2), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12020708 - 12 Jan 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2621

Abstract

The Field Trip for Measured Survey of Built Heritage carried out by Tianjin University every summer aims to educate students in each practice session, i.e., on-site data acquisition, condition investigation, classification of the component library, taking observation notes, and accomplishing HBIM deliverables. Under the risks posed by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the students could not leave the campus as a provisional arrangement. Only a team of five people was allowed to visit the Kuiwen Pavilion in the Temple of Confucius (Qufu, China). Therefore, the field trip for students had to be replaced with remote solutions, which consists of the following methods: on-site data acquisition; post-processing; online education, observation, modeling, delivery. Kuiwen Pavilion in the Temple of Confucius is a library with the official architectural style of the Ming and Qing Dynasties (14th to 20th century), for which building regulations are commonly recognized, and are suitable for survey education. In this context, this article focuses on the remote practice methods applied and tested throughout the case study. During the practice of the course, students who managed to finish the course, through the virtual tours and other online methods, finally achieved delivery of the HBIM models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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21 pages, 4454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Analytical Approach for the Characterization of Seventeenth Century Decorative Wall Paintings in Two Norwegian Stave Churches: A Case Study at Eidsborg and Heddal, Norway

by Ashley Amanda Freeman, Lavinia de Ferri, Joy Mazurek, Fabrizio Andriulo and Chiara Bertolin

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(8), 3477; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11083477 - 13 Apr 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3570

Abstract

The presented research examines 17th century distemper paint from the polychrome wooden interiors of two Norwegian stave churches: Eidsborg and Heddal. For the first time, the inorganic and organic components of specimens from Eidsborg and Heddal were identified using X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM)—Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier-Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) after derivatization. This multi-analytical approach allowed for the identification of red ochre as the main red pigment within the topcoat (with the possible addition of minium), confirmed that a chalk basecoat was used, and finally permitted the recognition of alteration phases. Markers of proteinaceous material attributed to the use of animal-based glues were detected throughout the stratigraphic layers of both churches, with the addition of linseed oil in some locations. Furthermore, the wood substrate showed markers characteristic of pine tree, with contamination of wood fractions being detected in some of the paint samples from Heddal and Eidsborg. This research has contributed to a better understanding of the current preservation state of Heddal and Eidsborg, and ultimately assisted in developing a deeper comprehension and awareness of materials used in Norwegian stave churches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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19 pages, 2780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Set of Fellini’s Movies: Investigating and Preserving Multi-Material Stage Costumes Exploiting Spectroscopic and Mass Spectrometric Techniques

by Francesca Sabatini, Jacopo La Nasa, Camilla Guerrini, Francesca Modugno, Sara Bonadio, Federica Ursino, Isetta Tosini, Maria Perla Colombini and Ilaria Degano

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(7), 2954; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11072954 - 25 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2580

Abstract

Since the second half of the 19th century, the world of textile production was radically changed both in terms of esthetics and of the performances leading to industrial products whose chemical properties were totally unknown and unexplored. Stage costumes are typical examples of multi-material art objects where different natural and synthetic materials were used to fulfil specific purposes. This research was performed in the framework of a diagnostic and restoration campaign of dresses of two Federico Fellini’s movies (“Il Casanova” and “Roma”). For the characterization of the textile fibers, Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) were employed. The structure of the metallic threads was investigated by Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). Dye identification was carried out by High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with Diode Array Detector and mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD, HPLC-ESI-Q-ToF). The analytical approach adopted allowed us to fully characterize the costumes composed of natural, synthetic and artificial fibers dyed with complex mixtures of last generation synthetic dyes. The results collected were fundamental to fine-tune an effective restoration aimed at minimizing the damages due to ageing, inaccurate home-made restoration interventions, or poor conservation conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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13 pages, 12315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Microstructure and Corrosion Characteristics of Early Iron Age Bronze Mirrors Excavated from the Korean Peninsula

by Nam Chul Cho, Min Kyeong Jang and Il Kwon Huh

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(5), 2441; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11052441 - 9 Mar 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2856

Abstract

Bronze mirrors, considered important grave goods, were widely used before glass mirrors in ancient times. Most excavated bronze artifacts are covered with corrosive materials and lose their original colors. More importantly, identifying corrosion characteristics and the manufacturing techniques used for these artifacts are essential for proper artifact preservation. In this study, Early Iron Age bronze mirrors excavated from the Korean Peninsula were examined to determine their microstructures, corrosion characteristics, and production techniques using various analytical methods, such as Micro-Raman spectroscopy and field emission electron probe microanalysis. As a result, sulfides containing iron suggested chalcopyrite use during production or that the sulfides originated from copper, iron, and sulfur residual matte. The analysis also detected corrosion layers with high tin oxide (SnO₂) levels and selective corrosion in the α + δ eutectoid phase on the artifact’s surface. In the corrosive layer, cuprite, malachite, and cassiterite corrosion products were detected, and nanocrystalline SnO₂ was identified as a characteristic of long-term soil erosion. Identifying these artifacts’ corrosion characteristics and manufacturing techniques is essential and can greatly contribute to proper artifact preservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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19 pages, 4250 KiB

Open AccessReview

Nanoindentation of Historic and Artists’ Paints

by Michał Łukomski, Alexandra Bridarolli and Naoki Fujisawa

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 1018; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12031018 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2714

Abstract

The micromechanical analysis of composite materials has become indispensable in the field of material science and for industrial applications, where small sample sizes predominate. In recent years, nanoindentation has been more readily utilized within the cultural heritage field, producing invaluable insight in the properties of artists’ materials. To take full advantage of the technique, however, issues related to the scale of the analysis need to be addressed. These include understanding the influence of sample preparation and material heterogeneity on the obtained results as well as establishing correlations between micro/nano-scale and macro-scale mechanical parameters. Moreover, the nanoindentation tests of time-dependent paints and adhesives can be difficult to interpret and thus require the development of unique measuring protocols. This review discusses nanoindentation studies of artists’ paints carried out over the last two decades. Analysis of presented experimental and theoretical works focuses on comprehending limitations of the technique and developing strategies to overcome them. We demonstrate how consistent and reliable measurements can be performed when experimental protocols consider the effects of geometry, roughness, and time-dependent properties of paint, as well as the compliance of the measuring system. Development of measurement protocols accounting for specific properties of historic and artists’ paints opens up the prospect of more routine application of nanoindentation in the field of cultural heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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14 pages, 2087 KiB

Open AccessReview

Influencing Factors in Acoustic Emission Detection: A Literature Review Focusing on Grain Angle and High/Low Tree Ring Density of Scots Pine

by Giulia Boccacci, Francesca Frasca, Chiara Bertolin and Anna Maria Siani

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(2), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12020859 - 14 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2153

Abstract

Among non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques applied to structural health monitoring in existing timber structures, ranging from visual inspection to more sophisticated analysis, acoustic emission (AE) is currently seldomly used to detect mechanical stresses in wooden building assets. This paper presents the results from a systematic literature review on AE NDT applied to monitor micro and macro fracture events in softwood, specifically Scots pine. This survey particularly investigates its application with respect to the tree rings density and grain angle inspection, as influencing factors well correlated with physical and mechanical characteristics of wood. The literature review was performed in a three-step process defined by the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow diagram, leading to the selection of 31 documents from different abstract and citation databases (Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar). The outcomes have highlighted how laboratory experiments, including several types of tests (tensile, cutting, compressive, etc.), were conducted in most cases, while a very limited number of studies investigated on in situ monitoring. In addition, theoretical approaches were often explored in parallel with the experimental one. It emerges that—for tree ring density studies—a multi-technique approach, which may include microscopic observations, could be more informative. Indeed, although not widely investigated, high/low tree ring density and grain angle were found as influencing factors on the AE parameters detected by the sensors, during condition and structural health monitoring experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scientific Methods for Cultural Heritage)

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