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Anti-SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Drugs and Vaccines

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A special issue of Biologics (ISSN 2673-8449).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 73175

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Prof. Dr. Vasso Apostolopoulos

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Guest Editor

Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC 3011, Australia
Interests: immunology; protein crystallography; medicinal chemistry; cellular and molecular biology; extensive translational research; clinical trials; vaccines; drugs; healthy ageing; chronic diseases; inflammation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Majid Davidson

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Guest Editor

Institute of Health and Sports, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC 3011, Australia
Interests: vaccine development; conjugated vaccine; vaccine efficacy; drug addiction; drug delivery; nano drug delivery; nanotechnology; cancer treatment; nano-particles; nano-particulate drug delivery system
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

A novel strain of coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) was first identified in late 2019 and triggered a pandemic which has been ongoing since March 2020. The pandemic has already had a serious impact on the global economy and has resulted thus far in over 2 million deaths and almost 100 million infections. The development of effective therapeutics is an urgent global priority to stop the spread of COVID-19 infections and prevent further fatalities. As such, a number of platforms such as drugs, vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, pharmacological therapy, plasma therapy, immune boosters, and alternative medicines have been explored. Researchers are fast-tracking this process, and there have already been significant developments during preclinical and clinical phases in a relatively short period. There are a number of drug candidates and vaccines developed for emergency use within a year, which is unprecedented in human history.

In this Special Issue of Biologics, the focus will be on the development of vaccines, pharmacological therapy, alternative medicines, monoclonal antibodies, plasma therapy, preclinical studies, clinical trials, replication, viral life cycle, and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2, as well as areas of identification of novel drug targets and any form of treatment models against COVID-19 infection. In vitro, in vivo, in silico, preclinical, and clinical trials are all welcome.

This Special Issue is for reviews or original research papers on biologics against the SARS-CoV-2 virus/COVID-19.

Prof. Dr. Vasso Apostolopoulos
Dr. Majid Hassanzadeganroudsari
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Biologics is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

COVID-19
SARS-CoV-2
vaccine
immunotherapies
novel drugs
pharmacological therapy
monoclonal antibodies
alternative medicine
naturaceuticals
pathogenesis

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

11 pages, 3573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Silico Analysis of Honeybee Venom Protein Interaction with Wild Type and Mutant (A82V + P375S) Ebola Virus Spike Protein

by Muhammad Muzammal, Muzammil Ahmad Khan, Mohammed Al Mohaini, Abdulkhaliq J. Alsalman, Maitham A. Al Hawaj and Arshad Farid

Biologics 2022, 2(1), 45-55; https://doi.org/10.3390/biologics2010003 - 7 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4482

Abstract

Venom from different organisms was used in ancient times to treat a wide range of diseases, and to combat a variety of enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. The aim of this in silico research was to investigate the impact of honeybee venom proteins and peptides against Ebola virus. In the current in silico study, different online and offline tools were used. RaptorX (protein 3D modeling) and PatchDock (protein–protein docking) were used as online tools, while Chimera and LigPlot + v2.1 were used for visualizing protein–protein interactions. We screened nine venom proteins and peptides against the normal Ebola virus spike protein and found that melittin, MCD and phospholipase A2 showed a strong interaction. We then screened these peptides and proteins against mutated strains of Ebola virus and found that the enzyme phospholipase A2 showed a strong interaction. According to the findings, phospholipase A2 found in honeybee venom may be an effective source of antiviral therapy against the deadly Ebola virus. Although the antiviral potency of phospholipase A2 has been recorded previously, this is the first in silico analysis of honeybee phospholipase A2 against the Ebola viral spike protein and its more lethal mutant strain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anti-SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Drugs and Vaccines)

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19 pages, 7230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Silico Evaluation of Different Flavonoids from Medicinal Plants for Their Potency against SARS-CoV-2

by H. R. Abd El-Mageed, Doaa A. Abdelrheem, Md. Oliullah Rafi, Md. Takim Sarker, Khattab Al-Khafaji, Md. Jamal Hossain, Raffaele Capasso and Talha Bin Emran

Biologics 2021, 1(3), 416-434; https://doi.org/10.3390/biologics1030024 - 25 Nov 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5164

Abstract

The ongoing pandemic situation of COVID-19 caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a global threat to both the world economy and public health. Therefore, there is an urgent need to discover effective vaccines or drugs to fight against this virus. The flavonoids and their medicinal plant sources have already exhibited various biological effects, including antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, etc. This study was designed to evaluate different flavonoids from medicinal plants as potential inhibitors against the spike protein (Sp) and main protease (M^pro) of SARS-CoV-2 using various computational approaches such as molecular docking, molecular dynamics. The binding affinity and inhibitory effects of all studied flavonoids were discussed and compared with some antiviral drugs that are currently being used in COVID-19 treatment namely favipiravir, lopinavir, and hydroxychloroquine, respectively. Among all studies flavonoids and proposed antiviral drugs, luteolin and mundulinol exhibited the highest binding affinity toward Mpro and Sp. Drug-likeness and ADMET studies revealed that the chosen flavonoids are safe and non-toxic. One hundred ns-MD simulations were implemented for luteolin-Mpro, mundulinol-Mpro, luteolin-Sp, and mundulinol-Sp complexes and the results revealed strong stability of these flavonoid-protein complexes. Furthermore, MM/PBSA confirms the stability of luteolin and mundulinol interactions within the active sites of this protein. In conclusion, our findings reveal that the promising activity of luteolin and mundulinol as inhibitors against COVID-19 via inhibiting the spike protein and major protease of SARS CoV-2, and we urge further research to achieve the clinical significance of our proposed molecular-based efficacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anti-SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Drugs and Vaccines)

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Review

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27 pages, 2130 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Overview of the Newly Emerged COVID-19 Pandemic: Features, Origin, Genomics, Epidemiology, Treatment, and Prevention

by Md. Takim Sarker, A. Q. Fuad Hasan, Md. Oliullah Rafi, Md. Jamal Hossain, H. R. Abd El-Mageed, Reem M. Elsapagh, Raffaele Capasso and Talha Bin Emran

Biologics 2021, 1(3), 357-383; https://doi.org/10.3390/biologics1030021 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6247

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a life-threatening pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has resulted in massive destruction and is still continuously adding to its death toll. The advent of this global outbreak has not yet been confirmed; however, investigation for suitable prophylaxis against this lethal virus is being carried out by experts all around the globe. The SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the Coronaviridae superfamily, like the other previously occurring human coronavirus variants. To better understand a new virus variant, such as the SARS-CoV-2 delta variant, it is vital to investigate previous virus strains, including their genomic composition and functionality. Our study aimed at addressing the basic overview of the virus’ profile that may provide the scientific community with evidence-based insights into COVID-19. Therefore, this study accomplished a comprehensive literature review that includes the virus’ origin, classification, structure, life cycle, genome, mutation, epidemiology, and subsequent essential factors associated with host–virus interaction. Moreover, we summarized the considerable diagnostic measures, treatment options, including multiple therapeutic approaches, and prevention, as well as future directions that may reduce the impact and misery caused by this devastating pandemic. The observations and data provided here have been screened and accumulated through extensive literature study, hence this study will help the scientific community properly understand this new virus and provide further leads for therapeutic interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anti-SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Drugs and Vaccines)

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20 pages, 1621 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Nucleic Acid Vaccines for COVID-19: A Paradigm Shift in the Vaccine Development Arena

by Vivek P. Chavda, Md Kamal Hossain, Jayesh Beladiya and Vasso Apostolopoulos

Biologics 2021, 1(3), 337-356; https://doi.org/10.3390/biologics1030020 - 23 Oct 2021

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 13605

Abstract

Coronavirus disease, COVID-19, has touched every country globally except five countries (North Korea, Turkmenistan, Tonga, Tuvalu and Nauru). Vaccination is the most effective method to protect against infectious diseases. The objective is to ensure that everyone has access to a COVID-19 vaccine. The conventional vaccine development platforms are complex and time-consuming to obtain desired approved vaccine candidates through rigorous regulatory pathways. These safeguards guarantee that the optimized vaccine product is safe and efficacious for various demographic populations prior to it being approved for general use. Nucleic acid vaccines employ genetic material from a pathogen, such as a virus or bacteria, to induce an immune response against it. Based on the vaccination, the genetic material might be DNA or RNA; as such, it offers instructions for producing a specific pathogen protein that the immune system will perceive as foreign and mount an immune response. Nucleic acid vaccines for multiple antigens might be made in the same facility, lowering costs even more. Most traditional vaccine regimens do not allow for this. Herein, we demonstrate the recent understanding and advances in nucleic acid vaccines (DNA and mRNA based) against COVID-19, specifically those in human clinical trials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anti-SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Drugs and Vaccines)

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15 pages, 543 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Is the Gut Microbiome a Target for Adjuvant Treatment of COVID-19?

by Kai Hilpert

Biologics 2021, 1(3), 285-299; https://doi.org/10.3390/biologics1030017 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3985

Abstract

High expression of the transmembrane protein angiotensin I converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), more than 100-times higher as in the lung, and transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) in the gastrointestinal tract leads to infection with SARS-CoV-2. According to meta-analysis data, 9.8–20% of COVID-19 patients experience gastrointestinal symptoms, where diarrhoea is the most frequent, and about 50% shed viruses with high titre through their faeces, where a first faecal transmission was reported. Furthermore, gut inflammation, intestinal damage, and weakening of the gut mucosal integrity that leads to increased permeability has been shown in different studies for COVID-19 patients. This can lead to increased inflammation and bacteraemia. Low mucosal integrity combined with low intestinal damage is a good predictor for disease progression and submission to the intensive care unit (ICU). Several pilot studies have shown that the gut microbiome of COVID-19 patients is changed, microbial richness and diversity were lower, and opportunistic pathogens that can cause bacteraemia were enriched compared to a healthy control group. In a large proportion of these patients, dysbiosis was not resolved at discharge from the hospital and one study showed dysbiosis is still present after 3 months post COVID-19. Consequently, there might be a link between dysbiosis of the gut microbiome in COVID-19 patients and chronic COVID-19 syndrome (CCS). Various clinical trials are investigating the benefit of probiotics for acute COVID-19 patients, the majority of which have not reported results yet. However, two clinical trials have shown that a certain combination of probiotics is beneficial and safe for acute COVID-19 patients. Mortality was 11% for the probiotic treatment group, and 22% for the control group. Furthermore, for the probiotic group, symptoms cleared faster, and an 8-fold decreased risk of developing a respiratory failure was calculated. In conclusion, evidence is arising that inflammation, increased permeability, and microbiome dysbiosis in the gut occur in COVID-19 patients and thus provide new targets for adjuvant treatments of acute and chronic COVID-19. More research in this area is needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anti-SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Drugs and Vaccines)

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33 pages, 818 KiB

Open AccessReview

Clinical Efficacy and Safety of Antiviral Drugs in the Extended Use against COVID-19: What We Know So Far

by Md. Jamal Hossain, Tabassum Jannat, Shejuti Rahman Brishty, Urmi Roy, Saikat Mitra, Md. Oliullah Rafi, Md. Rabiul Islam, Mst. Luthfun Nesa, Md. Ariful Islam and Talha Bin Emran

Biologics 2021, 1(2), 252-284; https://doi.org/10.3390/biologics1020016 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7613

Abstract

Human beings around the globe have been suffering from a devastating novel pandemic and public health emergency, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), for more than one and a half years due to the deadly and highly pathogenic severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection worldwide. Notably, no effective treatment strategy has been approved for the complete recovery of COVID-19 patients, though several vaccines have been rolled out around the world upon emergency use authorization. After the emergence of the COVID-19 outbreak globally, plenty of clinical investigations commenced to screen the safety and efficacy of several previously approved drugs to be repurposed against the SARS-CoV-2 pathogen. This concise review aims at exploring the current status of the clinical efficacy and safety profile of several antiviral medications for the treatment of patients with COVID-19 and other respiratory complications caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The paper covers all kinds of human studies (January 2020 to June 2021) except case reports/series to highlight the clear conclusion based on the current clinical evidence. Among the promising repositioned antivirals, remdesivir has been recommended in critical conditions to mitigate the fatality rate and improve clinical conditions. In addition, boosting the immune system is believed to be beneficial in treating COVID-19 patients, so interferon type I might exert immunomodulation through its antiviral effects by stimulating interferon-stimulated gene (ISG). However, more extensive clinical studies covering all ethnic groups globally are warranted based on current data to better understand the clinical efficacy of the currently proposed repurposed drugs against COVID-19. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anti-SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Drugs and Vaccines)

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18 pages, 5147 KiB

Open AccessReview

Computational Chemistry to Repurposing Drugs for the Control of COVID-19

by Majid Hassanzadeganroudsari, Amir Hossein Ahmadi, Niloufar Rashidi, Md Kamal Hossain, Amanda Habib and Vasso Apostolopoulos

Biologics 2021, 1(2), 111-128; https://doi.org/10.3390/biologics1020007 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5862

Abstract

Thus far, in 2021, 219 countries with over 175 million people have been infected by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). SARS-CoV-2 is a positive sense, single-stranded RNA virus, and is the causal agent for coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Due to the urgency of the situation, virtual screening as a computational modeling method offers a fast and effective modality of identifying drugs that may be effective against SARS-CoV-2. There has been an overwhelming abundance of molecular docking against SARS-CoV-2 in the last year. Due to the massive volume of computational studies, this systematic review has been created to evaluate and summarize the findings of existing studies. Herein, we report on computational articles of drugs which target, (1) viral protease, (2) Spike protein-ACE 2 interaction, (3) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, and (4) other proteins and nonstructural proteins of SARS-CoV-2. Based on the studies presented, there are 55 identified natural or drug compounds with potential anti-viral activity. The next step is to show anti-viral activity in vitro and translation to determine effectiveness into human clinical trials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anti-SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Drugs and Vaccines)

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39 pages, 6782 KiB

Open AccessReview

Overview of COVID-19 Disease: Virology, Epidemiology, Prevention Diagnosis, Treatment, and Vaccines

by Iman Salahshoori, Noushin Mobaraki-Asl, Ahmad Seyfaee, Nasrin Mirzaei Nasirabad, Zahra Dehghan, Mehrdad Faraji, Mina Ganjkhani, Aziz Babapoor, Seyede Zahra Shadmehr and Ali Hamrang

Biologics 2021, 1(1), 2-40; https://doi.org/10.3390/biologics1010002 - 12 May 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 23318

Abstract

Coronaviruses belong to the “Coronaviridae family”, which causes various diseases, from the common cold to SARS and MERS. The coronavirus is naturally prevalent in mammals and birds. So far, six human-transmitted coronaviruses have been discovered. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first reported in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. Common symptoms include fever, dry cough, and fatigue, but in acute cases, the disease can lead to severe shortness of breath, hypoxia, and death. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the three main transmission routes, such as droplet and contact routes, airborne transmission and fecal and oral for COVID-19, have been identified. So far, no definitive curative treatment has been discovered for COVID-19, and the available treatments are only to reduce the complications of the disease. According to the World Health Organization, preventive measures at the public health level such as quarantine of the infected person, identification and monitoring of contacts, disinfection of the environment, and personal protective equipment can significantly prevent the outbreak COVID-19. Currently, based on the urgent needs of the community to control this pandemic, the BNT162b2 (Pfizer), mRNA-1273 (Moderna), CoronaVac (Sinovac), Sputnik V (Gamaleya Research Institute, Acellena Contract Drug Research, and Development), BBIBP-CorV (Sinofarm), and AZD1222 (The University of Oxford; AstraZeneca) vaccines have received emergency vaccination licenses from health organizations in vaccine-producing countries. Vasso Apostolopoulos, Majid Hassanzadeganroudsari Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anti-SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Drugs and Vaccines)

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