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A special issue of Diseases (ISSN 2079-9721). This special issue belongs to the section "Infectious Disease".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2019) | Viewed by 54510

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Amal K. Mitra

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Guest Editor

Department of Public Health, Julia Jones Matthews School of Population and Public Health, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, TX 79601, USA
Interests: COVID-19; monkeypox; sleep disorders; health disparities; breastfeeding; lead poisoning
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Many developing countries are facing an enormous burden of infectious diseases, including diarrhea, malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS. Although vaccines have conquered most of the infectious diseases, newer and emerging infectious diseases, such as Ebola fever, SERS coronavirus disease, MARS, Nipah virus, Hantavirus, Dengue fever, Chikungunya, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, West Nile virus infection, etc., are still causing public health threats worldwide. Climate change and global warming are increasing the likelihood and spread of many vector-borne diseases, including malaria, dengue fever, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, filariasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, and trypanosomiasis. Over time, many infectious organisms have adapted to the drugs designed to kill them, making the agents resistant to the commonly used antimicrobials. Improper medication or self-medication is often a factor causing this drug resistance. There is a growing need to identify population at risk, social and environmental factors, and economic burden to proritize resources. Mathematical modeling and the application of GIS are also important tools in predicting infectious diseases, identification of at-risk population, and the evaluation of interventions. This Special Issue on “Infectious Disease Epidemiology” will cover original articles and review articles related to global burden of infectious diseases, antimicrobial resistance, emerging diseases, social aspects and economic burden of diseases, laboratory identification, clinical trials, community interventions, GIS application, and mathematical models.The Editorial Officeis also considering publication of a book and a free copy of the book to the contributing authors once this special issue of the journal is published.

Prof. Dr. Amal K. Mitra
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Infectious diseases
Global burden
Disability-adjusted life years (DALY)
Risk factors
Community interventions
Clinical trials
Laboratory studies
Drug resistance
GIS applications
Cost-effective analysis
Vaccine
Mathematical models
Social epidemiology

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Chronic Inflammatory and Infectious Diseases in Diseases (8 articles)

Published Papers (11 papers)

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9 pages, 761 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Disparities in Hepatitis B Vaccine Coverage by Race/Ethnicity: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2015–2016

by Azad R. Bhuiyan, Nusrat Kabir, Amal K. Mitra, Oluwabunmi Ogungbe and Marinelle Payton

Diseases 2020, 8(2), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases8020010 - 16 Apr 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4047

Abstract

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is the most common form of viral hepatitis and remains a global public health problem, even though the HBV vaccine is available. HBV leads to chronic liver disease, including cirrhosis, liver cancer, and death. This study aimed to identify disparities in HBV vaccine coverage with the serological test by race/ethnicity, adjusting for gender and age. In this study, 5735 adult participants were included, obtaining data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2015–2016. Proc survey frequency, bivariate- and multivariate logistic regression in the weighted sample were performed due to the complex survey design of NHANES. Data were analyzed using SAS, version 9.2.4. The overall prevalence of HBV vaccine coverage was only 23.3% (95% CI: 20.7%, 25.9%). In a multivariate logistic regression model, data showed that Mexican Americans (OR 0.57, 95% CI: 0.38, 0.86) and African Americans (OR 0.70, 95% CI 0.56, 0.84) had lower vaccine coverage compared to Whites. Females had (OR 1.55, 95% CI: 1.30, 1.85) higher vaccine coverage compared to men. Older age groups (30–49 years) (OR 0.41, 95% CI: 0.32, 0.52) and age group ≥ 50 years (OR 0.18, 95% CI 0.14, 0.23) had lower vaccine coverage compared to younger adults aged 18–29 years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

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10 pages, 231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“I Actually Don’t Know What HIV Is”: A Mixed Methods Analysis of College Students’ HIV Literacy

by Robert M. Avina, Mathew Mullen, Salome Mshigeni and Monideepa B. Becerra

Diseases 2020, 8(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases8010001 - 2 Jan 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3805

Abstract

Objective: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) remains a major public health issue with young adults facing a disproportionately higher rate of the burden. Our goal was to address the current literacy related to HIV, including biomedical prevention methods and barriers to care, such as cultural factors, from a sample of college students. Methods: We conducted a convergent parallel mixed methods analysis where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analyzed separately. A thematic analysis was conducted to assess qualitative results, while descriptive statistics were conducted to assess quantitative survey results. Results: HIV literacy was limited, with several participants reporting that they did not understand what HIV meant. While the majority knew the use of condoms, knowledge of other biomedical prevention methods was limited, as was the understanding the risk factors of HIV, with participants noting sharing a toilet seat and promiscuity as risk factors. Self-efficacy for HIV prevention was low among participants with many reporting that cultural barriers prevented discussion of risky behaviors and prevention methods in their families and social groups. Conclusion: Targeted, culturally sensitive, health education initiatives are needed to understand the high, low, or no risks of HIV as well as address stigmas related to HIV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

13 pages, 291 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Epidemiological Trends and Resistance Associated with Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Bacteremia: A 10-Year Retrospective Cohort Study in a Tertiary-Care Hospital in Hungary

by Márió Gajdács and Edit Urbán

Diseases 2019, 7(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases7020041 - 31 May 2019

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 5806

Abstract

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia has been recognized as an emerging nosocomial pathogen in invasive infections of immunocompromised, severely debilitated patients with significant underlying illnesses. The first-choice drug in these infections is sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (SMX/TMP), and resistance to this antimicrobial is a daunting challenge for clinicians. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of S. maltophilia bacteremia and SMX/TMP-resistance levels at a tertiary-care university hospital. A total of 175 episodes of S. maltophilia bacteremia were identified (2008–2012: n = 82, 2013–2017: n = 93; p = 0.061), 52% of affected patients were 60 years of age, and had recent surgery, severe injuries or underlying conditions (malignant hematologic diseases and solid tumors) in their history. Sixteen percent of isolates were resistant to SMX/TMP (2008–2012: n = 13.8%, 2013–2017: n = 17.2%; p = 0.076), and out of the resistant strains, 32.7% were also resistant to levofloxacin and colistin. Our findings on the SMX/TMP-resistance were similar to global literature data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

11 pages, 3374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Role of Evolutionary Selection Acting on Vaccine Antigens in the Re-Emergence of Bordetella Pertussis

by Haley Etskovitz, Nicole Anastasio, Evangeline Green and Meghan May

Diseases 2019, 7(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases7020035 - 16 Apr 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4414

Abstract

Pertussis (“whooping cough”) is a re-emerging disease with increasing incidence among fully vaccinated individuals. We explored the genetic diversity of five Bordetella pertussis proteins used to generate the subunit vaccine across ancestral and newly emergent strains using immunoinformatics and evolutionary selection measurements. The five subunits of pertussis toxin (Ptx1–Ptx5) were highly conserved with regard to sequence, predicted structure, predicted antigenicity, and were under purifying selection. In contrast, the adhesin proteins pertactin (Prn) and filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA) were under statistically significant (p < 0.01) diversifying selection. Most heavily diversified sites of each protein fell within antigenic epitopes, and the functional adhesin motifs were conserved. Protein secondary structure was conserved despite sequence diversity for FHA but was changeable in Prn. These findings suggest that subunit vaccine-derived immunity does not impact Ptx1–Ptx5 but may apply evolutionary pressure to Prn and FHA to undergo diversifying selection. These findings offer further insight into the emergence of vaccine-resistant strains of B. pertussis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

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9 pages, 379 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association of HCV Infection with C-Reactive Protein: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2009–2010

by Azad R. Bhuiyan, Amal K. Mitra, Oluwabunmi Ogungbe and Nusrat Kabir

Diseases 2019, 7(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases7010025 - 24 Feb 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3568

Abstract

The relationship between hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and C-reactive protein (CRP), which is an inflammatory biomarker, is limited in studies with the general population. It was hypothesized that changes in CRP levels are genotype-dependent in the general population with HCV infection. Thus, this study aimed to assess the prevalence of HCV infection and compare CRP levels with an anti-HCV antibody, HCV-RNA status, and HCV genotypes. A total of 5611 adult participants from the National and Health Nutrition Examination (NHANES), 2009–2010 survey were analyzed. Proc survey frequency, means, and multivariate regression were used due to the complex survey design of NHANES. The prevalence of HCV infection among the study population was 1.6%. There were lower mean CRP levels among people with anti-HCV antibody positive status compared to those with antibody negative status (0.12 ± 0.08 vs. 0.24 ± 0.02, p = 0.08, 95% Confidence Intervals, CI: −1.12 to 0.07). Mean CRP levels were also lower in people with HCV-RNA positive status compared to those with HCV-RNA negative status (0.56 ± 0.03 vs. 0.48 ± 0.05, p = 0.62 and 95% CI: −1.37 to 0.86). However, these differences were non-significant. With respect to HCV genotypes, significantly higher CRP levels were noted among people infected with HCV genotype 2 vs. genotype 1 (0.53 ± 0.06 vs. 0.23 ± 0.05, p < 0.01, 95% CI: −0.58 to −0.02) and those with HCV genotype 2 vs. HCV genotype 3 (0.53 ± 0.06, 0.28 ± 0.04, p < 0.01, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.48). Further studies are needed to confirm this finding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

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11 pages, 1716 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Risk Assessment Model of Human Salmonellosis Resulting from Consumption of Broiler Chicken

by Luma Akil and H. Anwar Ahmad

Diseases 2019, 7(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases7010019 - 7 Feb 2019

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6435

Abstract

(1) Background: Salmonella infections are a major cause of illnesses in the United States. Each year around 450 people die from the disease and more than 23,000 people are hospitalized. Salmonella outbreaks are commonly associated with eggs, meat and poultry. In this study, a quantitative risk assessment model (QRAM) was developed to determine Salmonella infections in broiler chicken. (2) Methods: Data of positive Salmonella infections were obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Foodborne Disease Outbreak Surveillance System, in addition to published literature. The Decision Tools @RISK add-in software was used for various analyses and to develop the QRAM. The farm-to-fork pathway was modeled as a series of unit operations and associated pathogen events that included initial contamination at the broiler house (node 1), contamination at the slaughter house (node 2), contamination at retail (node 3), cross-contamination during serving and cooking (node 4), and finally the dose–response model after consumption. (3) Results: QRAM of Salmonella infections from broiler meat showed highest contribution of infection from the retail node (33.5%). (4) Conclusions: This QRAM that predicts the risk of Salmonella infections could be used as a guiding tool to manage the Salmonella control programs Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

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10 pages, 537 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Tinea Capitis among Children in Osogbo, Nigeria, and the Associated Risk Factors

by Yemisi O. Adesiji, Busayo F. Omolade, Isaac A. Aderibigbe, Oluwabunmi V. Ogungbe, Olusegun A. Adefioye, Samuel A. Adedokun, Margaret A. Adekanle and Richard O. Ojedele

Diseases 2019, 7(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases7010013 - 27 Jan 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6442

Abstract

Tinea capitis is a fungi infection of the scalp that disproportionately affects children in rural and underserved communities in Nigeria. A case-control study was conducted to identify the causative agents and factors that predispose school pupils to tinea capitis in two selected government-owned public primary schools in Osogbo, Southwestern Nigeria. A total of 230 participants were included in the study: 115 cases and 115 controls. Head scrapings were collected from pupils with suspected T. capitis lesions, viewed under Potassium Hydroxide smear microscopy and cultured in Sabouraud’s Dextrose Agar (SDA) for characteristic fungal elements. A total of 105 (91%) samples were successfully cultured, of which 56% (59/105) were from male pupils. Tricophyton rubrum (34%), Tricophyton mentagrophyte (31%) and Microsporum canis (18%) were the most prevalent organisms. Other dermatophytes obtained include Microsporum nanuum (3%), Epidermophyton floccusum (6%), Tricophyton verucosum (1%), and Microsporum gypseum (8%). Pupils between the ages of 4 and 7 years had the highest distribution (67%) followed by those between the ages of 8 and 11 years (39%). Playing with animals, the sharing of combs and not bathing with soap were significantly associated with tinea capitis infection (P < 0.05) in each case. This study showed a high prevalence of tinea capitis caused by the identified dermatophytes in the area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

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10 pages, 249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neglected Zoonoses and the Missing Opportunities for One Health Education: The Case of Cystic Echinococcosis among Surgically Operated Patients in Basrah, Southern Iraq

by Mohanad F. Abdulhameed, Ian D. Robertson, Suzan A. Al-Azizz and Ihab Habib

Diseases 2019, 7(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases7010004 - 7 Jan 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4089

Abstract

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is recognized as a neglected disease of public health significance throughout the world, particularly in low and middle-income countries. The objectives of this study were to describe the characteristics, attitudes, knowledge, and practices of some Basrah province residents diagnosed with CE. Using a questionnaire survey, we interviewed 50 surgically operated cases of CE from Basrah, south Iraq. The cases comprised of 31 females and 19 males, of which 74% originated from rural areas. The questionnaire contained 30 questions and focused on gathering the demographic characteristics of the patients and capturing their overall knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward CE. Approximately half of the participants reported slaughtering livestock at home for their families’ consumption, 78% indicated the presence of a large number of stray dogs roaming freely about their village, 86% reported that they never boiled water before drinking it, and 26% reported not washing vegetables before eating them. Although a large proportion of the participants (72%) had heard of hydatid disease before becoming sick, over half (57%) were not aware of how the disease can be transmitted from animals to humans. This study highlights a gap in One Health education efforts regarding CE in southern Iraq, with a lack of counselling of patients on how to prevent reinfection. An intensive One Health education program should be implemented in Basrah to reduce CE at the human–animal interface. Lack of awareness on zoonoses among medical professionals, who are supposed to disseminate advice on preventative measures to their patients, is a challenge to the public health system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

8 pages, 212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

HIV/AIDS Knowledge of Undergraduate Students at a Historically Black College and University

by Prince Onyekachi Andrew, Azad Bhuiyan, Anthony Mawson, Sarah G. Buxbaum, Jung Hye Sung and Mohammad Shahbazi

Diseases 2018, 6(4), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases6040098 - 31 Oct 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7091

Abstract

Objective: This study among 400 undergraduate students enrolled at Jackson State University (JSU) study aimed to assess knowledge about HIV and AIDS among African-American undergraduate students attending a historically black college and university. A cross-sectional survey was conducted. Data were collected using a validated, self-administered, and standardized questionnaire on knowledge regarding risks for HIV and AIDS. Three hundred and eighty-six students (96.5%) had good knowledge about HIV and AIDS, although some participants had misconceptions about the modes of HIV infection transmission. There were no significant gender differences for HIV and AIDS knowledge among the participants (χ² = 3.05; P = 0.08). In general we concluded that JSU undergraduate students had adequate knowledge about HIV transmission modes and AIDS, although some participants had misconceptions about the routes of HIV infection transmission. Hence, this study calls for strengthening HIV and AIDS awareness education among undergraduate students. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

6 pages, 1133 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Zika Virus and the Risk for Renter Households

by Amanda Scarbrough, Heranga Rathnasekara, Melinda Holt, Jack Hill and Ram Kafle

Diseases 2018, 6(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases6020037 - 15 May 2018

Viewed by 3313

Abstract

Recent research on family income indicates that a lack of economic stability can affect healthy housing. Those with limited resources experience higher rates of inadequate and unstable housing many times forcing them to live in undesirable communities in which there can be several community-level health-related issues. One community-level health-related factor of concern has been the reemergence of Zika virus. Some research has indicated that a higher risk of catching Zika virus may exist in neighborhoods and areas with unhealthy housing. Therefore, this study sought to explore the existence of a relationship between rental housing and the Zika virus. Our findings indicated a significant correlation existed between renter occupied household units and the presence of Zika virus. This finding is notable as it indicates that renters have a higher chance of contracting Zika virus than non-renters. Future research should further examine the demographic and housing situation in other communities reporting cases of the Zika virus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infectious Disease Epidemiology)

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6 pages, 223 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperBrief Report

In-Hospital Surgery as a Risk Factor for Onset of AmpC-Producing Escherichia coli Blood Stream Infections

by Ruchir Chavada, Deborah Tong and Michael Maley

Diseases 2018, 6(3), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases6030071 - 1 Aug 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3986

Abstract

There has been a progressive rise in the incidence of blood stream infections (BSI) caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative organisms (MDR GN), which cause increased morbidity and mortality. For this reason, recent studies have focused on risk factors of acquisition of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producers. However, there is limited data on risk factors for BSI caused by AmpC-producing Enterobacteriaceae (AmpC EC), especially in low prevalence settings such as Australia. This study was performed to identify risk factors for acquisition of AmpC E. coli, using a retrospective matched case control design over a 3-year period. Patients with BSI caused by AmpC E. coli were matched with controls (third generation cephalosporin susceptible E. coli) by age and site of infection (n = 21). There was no significant difference in age, sex, clinical outcome, time to onset of BSI, recent antibiotic use (last 3 months), comorbidities (type 2 diabetes mellitus, renal failure) intensive care unit admission, underlying hematological condition, immunosuppressant use, APACHE II score, or any recent urological procedures (within last 3 months) between the two groups. On univariate analysis, the AmpC E. coli group were more likely to have had a surgical procedure in hospital and lived in a residential aged care facility. On multivariate logistic regression analysis, a recent surgical procedure was associated with the onset of AmpC E. coli BSI (Odd’s Ratio (OR) 4.78, p = 0.034). We concluded that in a relatively low prevalence setting such as Australia, AmpC E. coli BSI is potentially associated with surgery performed in hospital due to previous antibiotic exposure and longer hospitalization. Full article

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