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Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "D1: Advanced Energy Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2020) | Viewed by 66237

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Dimitrios Kalderis

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Guest Editor

Department of Electronic Engineering, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Chania, 73100 Crete, Greece
Interests: biochar; hydrochar; carbon-based nanocomposite materials; hydrothermal carbonization; biomass utilization for the production of added-value materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Vasiliki Skoulou

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Co-Guest Editor

School of Engineering, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK
Interests: biomass waste/other waste characterisation, pre-treatments and alternative ways of exploitation; thermochemical treatments (carbonization-torrefaction-pyrolysis-gasification-combustion) of food-woody biomass waste, fossil fuels and other waste for waste to energy (WtE), bioenergy-biofuels, biochar production; bioenergy/solid-gaseous biofuels systems design/repurposing of existing technologies to adapt new types of waste to fuels/feedstock; advanced cycles and alternative processes for biomass, fossil fuels and waste exploitation for biofuels-bioenergy-biochars under the circular economy scenario; combined renewable energy sources (RES) energy production systems, emphasized in lignocellulosic biomass/other waste sources for net zero carbon centralised and decentralized solutions; 2nd, 3rd and 4th generation feedstock for biofuels production; biorefineries/waste-refineries and integration of thermochemical and biochemical processing routes of biomass/waste; artificial intelligence (AI)
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

All types of biomass, and their waste, comprised one the pillars of the pre-industrial, pre-fossil fuel, agriculture-based economies of the past. Traditional practices of biomass waste management were applied, but not necessarily in a sophisticated and efficient way, and covered all the way up from agricultural activities to food production, animal feed, natural fibre separation as well as processing of forest-wood. The modern bioeconomy sector, though, includes new circular economy energy and materials streams of added value products, such as gaseous, liquid and solid biofuels and bioenergy generation routes, and biochar production, along with all the previously mentioned traditional bioeconomy emerged products.

The aim of this Special Issue is to include the latest bioenergy and biochar advancements and incorporation to a bioeconomy in transition. This Special Issue focuses on nature, properties, upgrading and bioenergy generation processes from all types of biomass waste and biochars originating from biomass waste. Overviews of international ongoing and collaborative, transdisciplinary research projects, technology transfer and policy development in the field are also welcome. A transdisciplinary approach in order to examine, explore and critically engage with issues, advances and barriers of the attempt are also encouraged.

Dr. Dimitrios Kalderis
Guest Editor

Dr. Vasiliki Skoulou
co-Guest Editor

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Keywords

biochar
hydrochar
combustion
pyrolysis
gasification
activated carbons
biomass waste
agricultural residues
circular bioeconomy
carbon sequestration
bio-refinery

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Natural Grasslands as Lignocellulosic Biofuel Resources: Factors Affecting Fermentable Sugar Production

by Linda Mezule, Baiba Strazdina, Brigita Dalecka, Eriks Skripsts and Talis Juhna

Energies 2021, 14(5), 1312; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14051312 - 28 Feb 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1695

Abstract

Semi-natural grassland habitats are most often limited to animal grazing and low intensity farming. Their potential in bioenergy production is complicated due to the heterogeneity, variation, accessibility, and need for complex pre-treatment/hydrolysis techniques to convert into valuable products. In this research, fermentable sugar production efficiency from various habitats at various vegetation periods was evaluated. The highest fermentable sugar yields (above 0.2 g/g volatile solids) over a period of 3 years were observed from habitats “xeric and calcareous grasslands” (Natura 2000 code: 6120) and “semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates” (Natura 2000 code: 6210). Both had a higher proportion of dicotyledonous plants. At the same time, the highest productivity (above 0.7 t sugar/ha) was observed from lowland hay meadows in the initial stage of the vegetation. Thus, despite variable yield-affecting factors, grasslands can be a potential resource for energy production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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9 pages, 1221 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermoformed Containers Based on Starch and Starch/Coffee Waste Biochar Composites

by Carlos A. Diaz, Rahul Ketan Shah, Tyler Evans, Thomas A. Trabold and Kathleen Draper

Energies 2020, 13(22), 6034; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13226034 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5312

Abstract

Biodegradable containers support zero-waste initiatives when alternative end-of-life scenarios are available (e.g., composting, bio digestion). Thermoplastic starch (TPS) has emerged as a readily biodegradable and inexpensive biomaterial that can replace traditional plastics in applications such as food service ware and packaging. This study has two aims. First, demonstrate the thermoformability of starch/polycaprolactone (PCL) as a thermoplastic material with varying starch loadings. Second, incorporate biochar as a sustainable filler that can potentially lower the cost and enhance compostability. Biochar is a stable form of carbon produced by thermochemical conversion of organic biomass, such as food waste, and its incorporation into consumer products could promote a circular economy. Thermoformed samples were successfully made with starch contents from 40 to 60 wt.% without biochar. Increasing the amount of starch increased the viscosity of the material, which in turn affected the compression molding (sheet manufacturing) and thermoforming conditions. PCL content reduced the extent of biodegradation in soil burial experiments and increased the strength and elongation at break of the material. A blend of 50:50 starch:PCL was selected for incorporating biochar. Thermoformed containers were manufactured with 10, 20, and 30 wt.% biochar derived from waste coffee grounds. The addition of biochar decreased the elongation at break but did not significantly affect the modulus of elasticity or tensile strength. The results demonstrate the feasibility of using starch and biochar for the manufacturing of thermoformed containers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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21 pages, 1426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Repurposing Fly Ash Derived from Biomass Combustion in Fluidized Bed Boilers in Large Energy Power Plants as a Mineral Soil Amendment

by Elżbieta Jarosz-Krzemińska and Joanna Poluszyńska

Energies 2020, 13(18), 4805; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13184805 - 14 Sep 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3012

Abstract

This research involved studying the physico-chemical parameters of fly ash derived from the combustion of 100% biomass in bubbling and circulating fluidized bed boilers of two large energy plants in Poland. Chemical composition revealed that ash contains substantial amounts of CaO (12.86–26.5%); K₂O (6.2–8.25%); MgO (2.97–4.06%); P₂O₅ (2–4.63%); S (1.6–1.83%); and micronutrients such as Mn, Zn, Cu, and Co. The ash from the bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) was richer in potassium, phosphorus, CaO, and micronutrients than the ash from the circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and contained cumulatively less contaminants. However, the BFB ash exceeded the threshold values of Cd to be considered as a liming amendment. Additionally, according to our European Community Bureau of Reference (BCR) study Pb and Cd were more mobile in the BFB than in the CFB ash. Except for a low nitrogen content, the ash met the minimum requirements for mineral fertilizers. Acute phytotoxicity revealed no inhibition of the germination and seed growth of Avena sativa L. and Lepidium sativum plants amended with biomass ash. Despite the fact that low nitrogen content excludes the use of biomass fly ash as a sole mineral fertilizer, it still possesses other favorable properties (a high content of CaO and macronutrients), which warrants further investigation into its potential utilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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13 pages, 620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The effects of Microalgae Biomass Co-Substrate on Biogas Production from the Common Agricultural Biogas Plants Feedstock

by Marcin Dębowski, Marta Kisielewska, Joanna Kazimierowicz, Aleksandra Rudnicka, Magda Dudek, Zdzisława Romanowska-Duda and Marcin Zieliński

Energies 2020, 13(9), 2186; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13092186 - 1 May 2020

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 3372

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the effects on methane production of the addition of microalgae biomass of Arthrospira platensis and Platymonas subcordiformis to the common feedstock used in agricultural biogas plants (cattle manure, maize silage). Anaerobic biodegradability tests were carried out using respirometric reactors operated at an initial organic loading rate of 5.0 kg volatile solids (VS)/m³, temperature of 35°C, and a retention time of 20 days. A systematic increase in the biogas production efficiency was found, where the ratio of microalgae biomass in the feedstock increased from 0% to 40% (%VS). Higher microalgae biomass ratio did not have a significant impact on improving the efficiency of biogas production, and the biogas production remained at a level comparable with 40% share of microalgae biomass in the feedstock. This was probably related to the carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio decrease in the mixture of substrates. The use of Platymonas subcordiformis ensured higher biogas production, with the maximum value of 1058.8 ± 25.2 L/kg VS. The highest content of methane, at an average concentration of 65.6% in the biogas produced, was observed in setups with Arthrospira plantensis biomass added at a concentration of between 20%–40% to the feedstock mixture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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13 pages, 3217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coconut Wastes as Bioresource for Sustainable Energy: Quantifying Wastes, Calorific Values and Emissions in Ghana

by George Yaw Obeng, Derrick Yeboah Amoah, Richard Opoku, Charles K. K. Sekyere, Eunice Akyereko Adjei and Ebenezer Mensah

Energies 2020, 13(9), 2178; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13092178 - 1 May 2020

Cited by 58 | Viewed by 27695

Abstract

Coconut husks with the shells attached are potential bioenergy resources for fuel-constrained communities in Ghana. In spite of their energy potential, coconut husks and shells are thrown away or burned raw resulting in poor sanitation and environmental pollution. This study focuses on quantifying the waste proportions, calorific values and pollutant emissions from the burning of raw uncharred and charred coconut wastes in Ghana. Fifty fresh coconuts were randomly sampled, fresh coconut waste samples were sun-dried up to 18 days, and a top-lit updraft biochar unit was used to produce biochar for the study. The heat contents of the coconut waste samples and emissions were determined. From the results, 62–65% of the whole coconut fruit can be generated as wastes. The calorific value of charred coconut wastes was 42% higher than the uncharred coconut wastes. PM_2.5 and CO emissions were higher than the WHO 24 h air quality guidelines (AQG) value at 25 °C, 1 atmosphere, but the CO concentrations met the WHO standards based on exposure time of 15 min to 8 h. Thus, to effectively utilise coconut wastes as sustainable bioresource-based fuel in Ghana, there is the need to switch from open burning to biocharing in a controlled system to maximise the calorific value and minimise smoke emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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20 pages, 9833 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of the Growth Potential of Sugarcane as an Energy Crop Based on the APSIM Model

by Ting Peng, Jingying Fu, Dong Jiang and Jinshuang Du

Energies 2020, 13(9), 2173; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13092173 - 1 May 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3844

Abstract

Research on the development of plants grown for energy purposes is important for ensuring the global energy supply and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and simulation is an important method to study its potential. This paper evaluated the marginal land that could be used to grow sugarcane in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Based on the meteorological data from 2009 to 2017 in this region and field observations from sugarcane plantations, the sensitivity of the APSIM (Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator) model parameters was analyzed by an extended Fourier amplitude sensitivity test, and the APSIM model was validated for sugarcane phenology and yields. During the process of model validation, the value of the determination coefficient R² of the observed and simulated values was between 0.76 and 0.91, and the consistency index D was between 0.91 and 0.97, indicating a good fit. On this basis, the APSIM sugarcane model was used to simulate the sugarcane production potential of the marginal land on a surface scale, and the distribution pattern of sugarcane production potential in the marginal land was obtained. The simulation results showed that if sugarcane was planted as an energy crop on the marginal land in Guangxi, it would likely yield approximately 42,522.05 × 10⁴ t of cane stalks per year. It was estimated that the sugarcane grown on the marginal land plus 50% of the sugarcane grown on the cropland would be sufficient to produce approximately 3847.37 × 10⁴ t of ethanol fuel. After meeting the demands for vehicle ethanol fuel in Guangxi, 3808.14 × 10⁴ t of ethanol fuel would remain and could be exported to the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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14 pages, 948 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Agro-Environmental Impacts for Supplemented Methods to Biochar Manure Pellets during Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Cultivation

by JoungDu Shin, SangWon Park and Changyoon Jeong

Energies 2020, 13(8), 2070; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13082070 - 21 Apr 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2323

Abstract

The agro-environmental impact of supplemented biochar manure pellet fertilizer (SBMPF) application was evaluated by exploring changes of the chemical properties of paddy water and soil, carbon sequestration, and grain yield during rice cultivation. The treatments consisted of (1) the control (no biochar), (2) pig manure compost pellet (PMCP), (3) biochar manure pellets (BMP) with urea solution heated at 60 °C (BMP-U60), (4) BMP with N, P, and K solutions at room temperature (BMP-NPK), and (5) BMP with urea and K solutions at room temperature (BMP-UK). The NO₃⁻–N and PO₄⁻–P concentrations in the control and PMCP in the paddy water were relatively higher compared to SBMPF applied plots. For paddy soil, NH₄⁺–N concentration in the control was lower compared to the other SBMPFs treatments 41 days after rice transplant. Additionally, it is possible that the SBMPFs could decrease the phosphorus levels in agricultural ecosystems. Also, the highest carbon sequestration was 2.67 tonnes C ha⁻¹ in the BMP-UK treatment, while the lowest was 1.14 tonnes C ha⁻¹ in the BMP-U60 treatment. The grain yields from the SBMPFs treatments except for the BMP-UK were significantly higher than the control. Overall, it appeared that the supplemented BMP-NPK application was one of the best SBMPFs considered with respect to agro-environmental impacts during rice cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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14 pages, 2445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Different Pyrolysis Process Conditions of South Asian Waste Coconut Shell and Characterization of Gas, Bio-Char, and Bio-Oil

by Jayanto Kumar Sarkar and Qingyue Wang

Energies 2020, 13(8), 1970; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13081970 - 16 Apr 2020

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 6573

Abstract

In the present study, a series of laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the impact of pyrolysis temperature on the outcome yields of waste coconut shells in a fixed bed reactor under varying conditions of pyrolysis temperature, from 400 to 800 °C. The temperature was increased at a stable heating rate of about 10 °C/min, while keeping the sweeping gas (Ar) flow rate constant at about 100 mL/min. The bio-oil was described by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) investigations and demonstrated to be an exceptionally oxygenated complex mixture. The resulting bio-chars were characterized by elemental analysis and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The output of bio-char was diminished pointedly, from 33.6% to 28.6%, when the pyrolysis temperature ranged from 400 to 600 °C, respectively. In addition, the bio-chars were carbonized with the expansion of the pyrolysis temperature. Moreover, the remaining bio-char carbons were improved under a stable structure. Experimental results showed that the highest bio-oil yield was acquired at 600 °C, at about 48.7%. The production of gas increased from 15.4 to 18.3 wt.% as the temperature increased from 400 to 800 °C. Additionally, it was observed that temperature played a vital role on the product yield, as well as having a vital effect on the characteristics of waste coconut shell slow-pyrolysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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9 pages, 945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lipid Production from Amino Acid Wastes by the Oleaginous Yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides

by Qiang Li, Rasool Kamal, Qian Wang, Xue Yu and Zongbao Kent Zhao

Energies 2020, 13(7), 1576; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13071576 - 1 Apr 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2798

Abstract

Microbial lipids have been considered as promising resources for the production of renewable biofuels and oleochemicals. Various feedstocks, including sugars, crude glycerol, and volatile fatty acids, have been used as substrates for microbial lipid production, yet amino acid (AA) wastes remain to be evaluated. Here, we describe the potential to use AA wastes for lipid production with a two-stage culture mode by an oleaginous yeast strain Rhodosporidium toruloides CGMCC 2.1389. Each of the 20 proteinogenic AAs was evaluated individually as sole carbon source, with 8 showing capability to facilitate cellular lipid contents of more than 20%. It was found that L-proline was the most favored AA, with which cells accumulated lipids to a cellular lipid content of 37.3%. When blends with AA profiles corresponding to those of meat industry by-products and sheep viscera were used, the cellular lipid contents reached 27.0% and 28.7%, respectively. The fatty acid compositional analysis of these lipid products revealed similar profiles to those of vegetable oils. These results, thus, demonstrate a potential route to convert AA wastes into lipids, which is of great importance for waste management and biofuel production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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15 pages, 847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lignocellulosic Ethanol in a Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Obligation System—A Case Study of Swedish Sawdust Based-Ethanol Production

by Sylvia Haus, Lovisa Björnsson and Pål Börjesson

Energies 2020, 13(5), 1048; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13051048 - 26 Feb 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3916

Abstract

A greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction obligation system has been implemented in the Swedish road transport sector to promote the use of biofuels. For transportation fuel suppliers to fulfil this obligation, the volume of biofuel required decreases with decreasing life cycle GHG emission for the biofuel, linking lower GHG emission to higher economic value. The aim of this study was to investigate how the economic competitiveness of a Swedish emerging lignocellulosic-based ethanol production system would be influenced by the reduction obligation. The life cycle GHG emission for sawdust-based ethanol was calculated by applying the method advocated in the EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED II). The saving in GHG emissions, compared with fossil liquid transportation fuels, was 93% for a potential commercial production system in southern Sweden. This, in turn, will increase the competitiveness of sawdust-based ethanol compared to the mainly crop-based ethanol currently used in the Swedish biofuel system, which has an average GHG emission saving of 68%, and will allow for an almost 40% higher price of sawdust-based ethanol, compared to the current price of ethanol at point of import. In a future developed, large-scale market of advanced ethanol, today’s GHG emission reduction obligation system in Sweden seems to afford sufficient economic advantage to make lignocellulosic ethanol economically viable. However, in a short-term perspective, emerging lignocellulosic-based ethanol production systems are burdened with economic risks and therefore need additional economic incentives to make a market introduction possible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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Review

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20 pages, 2040 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hydrochars as Emerging Biofuels: Recent Advances and Application of Artificial Neural Networks for the Prediction of Heating Values

by Ioannis O. Vardiambasis, Theodoros N. Kapetanakis, Christos D. Nikolopoulos, Trinh Kieu Trang, Toshiki Tsubota, Ramazan Keyikoglu, Alireza Khataee and Dimitrios Kalderis

Energies 2020, 13(17), 4572; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13174572 - 3 Sep 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4054

Abstract

In this study, the growing scientific field of alternative biofuels was examined, with respect to hydrochars produced from renewable biomasses. Hydrochars are the solid products of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) and their properties depend on the initial biomass and the temperature and duration of treatment. The basic (Scopus) and advanced (Citespace) analysis of literature showed that this is a dynamic research area, with several sub-fields of intense activity. The focus of researchers on sewage sludge and food waste as hydrochar precursors was highlighted and reviewed. It was established that hydrochars have improved behavior as fuels compared to these feedstocks. Food waste can be particularly useful in co-hydrothermal carbonization with ash-rich materials. In the case of sewage sludge, simultaneous P recovery from the HTC wastewater may add more value to the process. For both feedstocks, results from large-scale HTC are practically non-existent. Following the review, related data from the years 2014–2020 were retrieved and fitted into four different artificial neural networks (ANNs). Based on the elemental content, HTC temperature and time (as inputs), the higher heating values (HHVs) and yields (as outputs) could be successfully predicted, regardless of original biomass used for hydrochar production. ANN₃ (based on C, O, H content, and HTC temperature) showed the optimum HHV predicting performance (R² 0.917, root mean square error 1.124), however, hydrochars’ HHVs could also be satisfactorily predicted by the C content alone (ANN₁, R² 0.897, root mean square error 1.289). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biochar: Repurposing Waste to Sustainable Energy and Materials)

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