Energies

Research

Jump to: Review

14 pages, 5085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on SI Engine Operation Stability at Lean Condition—The Effect of a Small Amount of Hydrogen Addition

by Jacek Leyko, Kamil Słobiński, Jarosław Jaworski, Grzegorz Mitukiewicz, Wissam Bou Nader and Damian Batory

Energies 2023, 16(18), 6659; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186659 - 17 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1291

Abstract

The lean-burn mode is a solution that reduces the fuel consumption of spark-ignition internal combustion engines and keeps the low exhaust emission, but the stability of the lean-burn combustion process, especially at low loads, needs to be addressed. Enhancing gasoline with hybrid hydrogen [...] Read more.

The lean-burn mode is a solution that reduces the fuel consumption of spark-ignition internal combustion engines and keeps the low exhaust emission, but the stability of the lean-burn combustion process, especially at low loads, needs to be addressed. Enhancing gasoline with hybrid hydrogen oxygen (HHO) gas—a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases—is proposed to improve combustion of the lean-gasoline mixture. A three-cylinder, spark-ignition, naturally aspirated, MPI engine with HHO gas produced with an alkaline water electrolyzer and introduced as a gasoline enhancement was tested. The amount of hydrogen added to the lean-gasoline mixture (λ = 1.4) was in the range from 0.15 to 1.5%, and the results were compared to the stoichiometric (λ = 1) and pure lean mode (λ = 1.4) gasoline operation. The other authors’ results show that a minimum 3% of the mass fraction of hydrogen is necessary to affect the gasoline combustion process. This paper proved that even a small hydrogen enhancement of gasoline in the amount of 0.3% of the mass fraction improves the combustion stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance and Emissions of a CI-ICE Fuelled with Jatropha Biodiesel Blends and Economic and Environment Assessment for Power Generation in Non-Interconnected Areas

by Alexander García-Mariaca, Jorge Villalba, Uriel Carreño and Didier Aldana

Energies 2023, 16(16), 5964; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16165964 - 12 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1694

Abstract

An experimental investigation into the effects of Jatropha biodiesel (JB) blends on the performance and emissions of a diesel engine was performed, and an economic and environmental assessment of the Jatropha curcas L. (JCL) crop for JB production and its use was also [...] Read more.

An experimental investigation into the effects of Jatropha biodiesel (JB) blends on the performance and emissions of a diesel engine was performed, and an economic and environmental assessment of the Jatropha curcas L. (JCL) crop for JB production and its use was also presented. The results revealed that when the engine operates with JB blends in proportions of up to 10%, the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) increases to 37.5% at full engine load, and the engine’s thermal efficiency is reduced by 10% regarding diesel operation. A reduction in the specific emissions of carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and particulate matter with JB blends of up to 75% of the engine load was found. On the other hand, specific carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions, with regard to diesel, increased by 21.8 and more than 100%, respectively. The lower heating value (LHV) was the property that most influenced the engine’s performance and emissions fuelled with JB blends, because JB has a lower value of LHV than diesel. Finally, the economic and environmental assessment showed that Colombian soil is well-suited to JCL crops. The use of JB instead of palm biodiesel could mean a decrease of 27,730 USD/day and 1588 kg/day of CO₂ emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Efficiency of Spark-Ignition Internal Combustion Engine Using a Novel Electromagnetic Actuator and Adapting Increased Compression

by Jarosław Mamala, Bronisław Tomczuk, Andrzej Waindok, Mariusz Graba and Krystian Hennek

Energies 2023, 16(14), 5355; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16145355 - 13 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2063

Abstract

This paper presents an empirical study of a spark-ignition internal combustion engine with modifications made to increase its effectiveness. The modification was implemented bi-directionally in terms of changes to the compression ratio and changes to the engine’s valve train. The compression ratio was [...] Read more.

This paper presents an empirical study of a spark-ignition internal combustion engine with modifications made to increase its effectiveness. The modification was implemented bi-directionally in terms of changes to the compression ratio and changes to the engine’s valve train. The compression ratio was increased by 2.3 units by design and a hybrid intake valve opening control was used in the engine’s valve train. The hybrid control involved autonomous control of one of the inlet valves with a dedicated electromagnetic actuator. The designed electromagnetic actuator was mounted downstream of the single-cylinder engine’s intake system’s modified camshaft to control the effective compression pressure build-up. Field calculations were carried out for the electromagnetic actuator’s design variants and its current characteristics were determined. The multivariate calculations were carried out in order to find the quasi-optimal geometry of the actuator. The width and height of magnetic field coils and the dimensions of the stator poles were changed, while maintaining the same external dimensions of the actuator to enable its mounting in the cylinder head system. In the next step, the prototype of the actuator was made and placed on the combustion engine in order to conduct the experimental investigations. The work was aimed at improving the internal combustion engine’s efficiency at the low load range, as this is load range in which it has low efficiency despite it being the most often used during normal vehicle operation. The original measurement stand was prepared, and many tests were carried out in order to investigate the influence of the electromagnetic valve on the combustion engine characteristic. This improved the internal combustion engine’s efficiency at its low-load range by up to 25%. Both calculation and measurement results are presented in form of graphs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 4449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Volumetric Flow Rate Measurement Methodology of Positive Pressure Ventilators on the Parameters of the Drive Unit

by Łukasz Warguła, Piotr Kaczmarzyk, Piotr Lijewski, Paweł Fuć, Filip Markiewicz, Daniel Małozięć and Bartosz Wieczorek

Energies 2023, 16(11), 4515; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114515 - 4 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1615

Abstract

The nature and conditions of the execution of tests (open or duct flow) in terms of evaluating the flow rate generated by positive pressure ventilators (PPV) may affect the parameters of the drive unit recorded during testing. In this article, popular PPVs (conventional [...] Read more.

The nature and conditions of the execution of tests (open or duct flow) in terms of evaluating the flow rate generated by positive pressure ventilators (PPV) may affect the parameters of the drive unit recorded during testing. In this article, popular PPVs (conventional type—W1 and turbo type—W2) of about 4.2 kW were tested under open flow (Method A) and duct flow (Method B) conditions. During the tests, engine load values were recorded: torque, speed, horsepower and, using portable emissions measurement systems (PEMS), exhaust gas emissions: carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NO_x) and fuel consumption. Depending on the method used to measure ventilator flow rates, drive units can have different drive power requirements (from 3.2% to 4.5%). Changes in drive unit operating conditions induced by the flow measurement method are observed in the results of fuel consumption (from 0.65% to 9.8%) and emissions of harmful exhaust compounds: CO₂ up to 2.4%, CO up to 67%, HC up to 93.2% and NO_x up to 37%. The drive units of turbo type fans (W2) are more susceptible to the influence of the test methods in terms of flow assessment, where they have higher emissions of harmful exhaust gases when tested by Method A. Flow measurement methods affect the oscillation of propulsion power, which contributes to disturbances in the control of the fuel–air mixture composition. The purpose of this article is to analyse the impact of testing methods for measuring the flow rate of positive pressure ventilators on the performance of the drive unit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conversion of a Small-Size Passenger Car to Hydrogen Fueling: Evaluating the Risk of Backfire and the Correlation to Fuel System Requirements through 0D/1D Simulation

by Adrian Irimescu, Bianca Maria Vaglieco, Simona Silvia Merola, Vasco Zollo and Raffaele De Marinis

Energies 2023, 16(10), 4201; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16104201 - 19 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1449

Abstract

Hydrogen is an effective route for achieving zero carbon dioxide emissions, with a contained cost compared to electric powertrains. When considering the conversion of spark ignition (SI) engines to H₂ fueling, relatively minor changes are required in terms of added components. This [...] Read more.

Hydrogen is an effective route for achieving zero carbon dioxide emissions, with a contained cost compared to electric powertrains. When considering the conversion of spark ignition (SI) engines to H₂ fueling, relatively minor changes are required in terms of added components. This study looks at the possibility of converting a small-size passenger car powered by a turbocharged SI unit. The initial evaluation of range and peak power showed that overall, the concept is feasible and directly comparable to the electric version of the vehicle in terms of powertrain performance. Injection phasing effects and cylinder imbalance were found to be potential issues. Therefore, the present work applied an 0D/1D simulation for investigating the effects of hydrogen fueling with respect to the likelihood of backfire. A range of engine speeds and load settings were scrutinized for evaluating the possibility of achieving the minimal risk of abnormal combustion due to pre-ignition. Ensuring the correct flow was predicted to be essential, especially at high loads and engine speeds. Fuel delivery phasing with respect to valve intake and closing events was also found to be a major factor that influenced not only backfire occurrence but conversion efficiency as well. Interactions with the electronic control unit were also evaluated, and additional requirements compared to standard conversion kits for LPG or CNG fueling were identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 8970 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of the In-Cylinder Catalyst on the Aftertreatment Efficiency of a Diesel Engine

by Monika Andrych-Zalewska, Zdzislaw Chlopek, Jacek Pielecha and Jerzy Merkisz

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2826; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062826 - 18 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1601

Abstract

The article discusses the use of a catalyst inside the cylinder, the task of which is to reduce exhaust emissions from a diesel engine. The catalyst (platinum) applied to the glow plugs provided an additional method of exhaust aftertreatment. Due to their usage, [...] Read more.

The article discusses the use of a catalyst inside the cylinder, the task of which is to reduce exhaust emissions from a diesel engine. The catalyst (platinum) applied to the glow plugs provided an additional method of exhaust aftertreatment. Due to their usage, especially in urban driving, passenger cars are characterized by small mileage between individual trips, so they often operate from a cold engine start and work at a low engine temperature, which leads to reduced catalytic reactor efficiency. For this reason, the efficiency of the internal catalyst was tested in relation to the efficiency of the external reactor. This efficiency was determined based on exhaust emission measurements (before and after the catalytic reactor) in two stages: stage 1: idling of a hot engine, and stage 2: simulation of the NEDC test (valid for the selected test object). The tests were carried out on an engine dynamometer, where the traffic conditions from the type-approval test carried out on a chassis dynamometer could be replicated. The tests were carried out on a Euro 4 1.3 JTD MultiJet diesel engine. The results (measurement of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and the number of particles) related to the assessment of the effect the catalyst in the cylinder were discussed. The obtained catalytic reactor efficiency results, regardless of the type of research, indicated that it achieved the highest efficiency in reducing the concentration of hydrocarbons, and the lowest—in relation to the number of solid particles (as that is not its primary function). It is particularly significant that the in-cylinder catalytic converter was most efficient during the cold engine start, which happens frequently in urban driving. The efficiency of the diesel oxidation catalytic reactor (DOC) during the engine start-up and warm-up phases with the use of standard glow plugs reached values of 31.3%, 34.1% and 14.3%, respectively, for carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and the particle number. On the other hand, the determined efficiency of the DOC in a setup with the modified glow plugs was 28.9%, 35.7% and 12.5%, respectively. The proposed solution can be used to improve the combustion quality in internal combustion engines used in hybrid vehicles, which are characterized by frequent engine starts and stops. In addition, it is possible to use such a solution retroactively in traditional vehicles powered by an internal combustion engine, which could result in an improvement in their emission class through what is called retrofitting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 5979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Energy and Luminosity Characterization of an Advanced Ignition System Using a Non-Intrusive Methodology in an Optically Accessible Calorimeter

by Roberto Martinelli, Federico Ricci, Gabriele Discepoli, Luca Petrucci, Stefano Papi and Carlo N. Grimaldi

Energies 2023, 16(1), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010520 - 3 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1559

Abstract

To restrain the environmental impact of modern SI engines, igniters must guarantee stable combustions with low cycle-to-cycle variability in extreme operating conditions (high EGR, ultra-lean), via high energy release in the combustion chamber. The direct measurement of this energy is not trivial and [...] Read more.

To restrain the environmental impact of modern SI engines, igniters must guarantee stable combustions with low cycle-to-cycle variability in extreme operating conditions (high EGR, ultra-lean), via high energy release in the combustion chamber. The direct measurement of this energy is not trivial and requires a controlled environment. Luminosity detection is a non-intrusive diagnostic technique to indirectly measure the thermal energy released by the discharge on optically accessible apparatus. This work compares energy and luminosity produced by a plasma igniter in a constant volume vessel at realistic working conditions (ignition at 8 bar and air as a medium). A calibration factor can be defined to describe the thermal energy behavior as a function of the discharge luminosity and to give an assessment of such approach for its use in optically accessible engine. This study shows that thermal energy and luminosity are influenced by the gas type and related by a linear relationship for both air and nitrogen. The presence of oxygen resulted in discharges with reduced energy delivery to the medium and a lower discharge luminosity compared to nitrogen. This work outcome could improve the use of a non-intrusive methodology, based on luminosity detection, to characterize the igniter performance, exploitable for 3D-CFD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 4445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Losses Related to Ring Pack Wear in Gasoline Car Engine

by Grzegorz Koszalka and Paweł Krzaczek

Energies 2022, 15(24), 9570; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249570 - 16 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1666

Abstract

Decreasing production and rising prices of cars, especially those with electric drive, lead to longer use of cars with internal combustion engines. It can be assumed that in the future, more and more cars powered by such engines with high mileage and therefore [...] Read more.

Decreasing production and rising prices of cars, especially those with electric drive, lead to longer use of cars with internal combustion engines. It can be assumed that in the future, more and more cars powered by such engines with high mileage and therefore high wear will be used. Engine wear leads to reduced efficiency and increased emissions. This paper analyzes the impact of wear of the piston–rings–cylinder system components on energy losses associated with gas leakage from the combustion chamber and friction of the rings against the cylinder liner in a car spark-ignition engine. A ring pack model was used for the analyses. The input data for the simulation were gained in measurements made on the engine test stand and measurements of the wear of the engine components used in the car. The energy losses associated with blow-by in an unworn engine ranged from 1.5% of the indicated work at high load to almost 5% at low load. In the engine after 300,000 km, these losses increased to 2.5% and 7.5%, respectively. Ring friction losses in an unworn engine ranged from 1.5% at high load to 9% at low load. The effect of wear on these losses was smaller. They increased by only 0.1% at high load and 1% at low load. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 4092 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Production and Testing of Butyl and Methyl Esters as New Generation Biodiesels from Fatty Wastes of the Leather Industry

by Dariusz Kurczyński, Grzegorz Wcisło, Agnieszka Leśniak, Miłosław Kozak and Piotr Łagowski

Energies 2022, 15(22), 8744; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228744 - 21 Nov 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1872

Abstract

Climate changes caused by the greenhouse effect make it necessary to look for new sources of energy. One of them is waste of a biological origin. They are often difficult to dispose of and such a process can be expensive. Increasingly, they are [...] Read more.

Climate changes caused by the greenhouse effect make it necessary to look for new sources of energy. One of them is waste of a biological origin. They are often difficult to dispose of and such a process can be expensive. Increasingly, they are used to produce biofuels that can replace petroleum-based fuels. They are also an alternative to food-based biofuels. The aim of the work was to propose a method of using fatty waste generated in a plant dealing with tanning animal skins and to evaluate the properties of the produced biofuels. The authors decided to use this waste to produce biodiesel. A patented reactor and technology developed by one of the co-authors was used for this purpose. Two alcohols, butyl and methyl, were used to produce esters in the transesterification process. Animal fats butyl esters (AFBE) and animal fats methyl esters (AFME) have been produced. A high efficiency of the transesterification process was obtained. It amounted to 99.2 (wt.%) for AFME and 98.9 (wt.%) for AFBE. The physicochemical properties of AFBE and AFME biodiesels, diesel fuel, and mixtures of these biodiesels and diesel fuel were tested. Most of the tested properties of AFBE were more favourable than those of AFME. The produced AFBE in relation to AFME was characterized by better cetane number, heat of combustion and calorific value, density, dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity, and flash point. For example, the kinematic viscosity for AFBE was 3.6 mm²/s and for AFME 4.1 mm²/s. In contrast, the calorific value of AFBE biodiesel was 39.2 MJ/kg, and that of AFME biodiesel was 38.4 MJ/kg. The use of butanol from the point of view of the properties of the produced biodiesel turned out to be more advantageous in relation to methanol. Due to the fact that the production uses waste fat, the produced biodiesels can be regarded as second-generation biofuels. Producing biodiesel from waste is a way to utilize waste and is beneficial in terms of environmental protection. It can be a way to increase the share of biofuels in the energy balance of regions where large amounts of fat waste products of animal origin are available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 965 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparison of Gasoline Engine Exhaust Emissions of a Passenger Car through the WLTC and RDE Type Approval Tests

by Monika Andrych-Zalewska, Zdzislaw Chlopek, Jerzy Merkisz and Jacek Pielecha

Energies 2022, 15(21), 8157; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218157 - 1 Nov 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1775

Abstract

The article presents a comparison of exhaust emission test results from a passenger car with a spark-ignition engine examined with the WLTC (Worldwide Harmonized Light-Duty Vehicles Test Cycle) test, which was carried out on a chassis dynamometer, and examined with a RDE (Real [...] Read more.

The article presents a comparison of exhaust emission test results from a passenger car with a spark-ignition engine examined with the WLTC (Worldwide Harmonized Light-Duty Vehicles Test Cycle) test, which was carried out on a chassis dynamometer, and examined with a RDE (Real Driving Emissions) test, which was conducted in real vehicle operating conditions. The exhaust emissions and the emitted particle number in the individual phases of both tests were determined. Large disparities were found in the results of the two tests. The cold start-up had a particularly significant impact on the test results in the case of the WLTC test. This impact is much greater than in the RDE test, mainly due to the fact that the RDE test is much longer than the WLTC test. Moreover, the engine load in the RDE test was greater than in the WLTC test. As a result of the conducted analyses, it was postulated that the research should be continued in stochastic conditions for the vehicle speed function, e.g., in the implementation of the speed function determined for the real conditions of the vehicle operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 4743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Possibilities of Reduction of Exhaust Emissions from a Farm Tractor by Retrofitting Exhaust Aftertreatment

by Maciej Siedlecki, Natalia Szymlet, Paweł Fuć and Beata Kurc

Energies 2022, 15(21), 7963; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15217963 - 27 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1648

Abstract

The paper evaluates particulate matter emissions and exhaust gas components from retrofitted engines of non-road vehicles measured under actual operating conditions. The content is divided into three main parts: formation of guidelines, production of the filter and emission tests. The obtained results clearly [...] Read more.

The paper evaluates particulate matter emissions and exhaust gas components from retrofitted engines of non-road vehicles measured under actual operating conditions. The content is divided into three main parts: formation of guidelines, production of the filter and emission tests. The obtained results clearly indicate excess PM and PN emissions from the engine under actual operating conditions when compared to the limits outlined in the type approval standards. Moreover, it was observed that the actual conditions are reflected to a very small extent at the points included in the stationary homologation test cycle. Based on these observations, the authors decided to modify the stationary test cycle. The measured exhaust gas compositions and their mass flow rates were used to create the geometry of the newly developed filter. The paper contains detailed results of the relative specific exhaust emissions of particulate matter and gaseous components at individual engine operating points. The exhaust emissions analysis made it possible to draw conclusions regarding the operation of the newly designed system. One of them is that fitting a metal-support particulate filter in the exhaust system significantly contributes to reducing the exhaust emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 4113 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Emissions and Fuel Consumption in Freight Transport

by Andrzej Ziółkowski, Paweł Fuć, Aleks Jagielski and Maciej Bednarek

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4706; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15134706 - 27 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1825

Abstract

Currently in Europe, road freight transport is characterized by the most dynamic advancement. Year after year, we may observe an increase in the amount of transported goods. The paper presents the emissions of gaseous exhaust components such as CO, THC, and NO_x [...] Read more.

Currently in Europe, road freight transport is characterized by the most dynamic advancement. Year after year, we may observe an increase in the amount of transported goods. The paper presents the emissions of gaseous exhaust components such as CO, THC, and NO_x as well as fuel consumption in freight transport. The emission analysis was performed for the entire transport cycle covering the handling of the goods with forklifts and carriage with a heavy-duty truck. The investigations were performed under actual conditions of operation using a Portable Emission Measurement System (PEMS). The fuel mileage was determined using the carbon balance method. The test routes were designed so as to reproduce the transport-logistic system typical of small towns. The setting for the tests was a town located in central Poland near the A2 motorway constituting part of the trans-European logistic network with multiple locations of logistic centers. In order to present the real emissions during handling, two test variants were considered: an outdoor variant (on a nearby lot) and inside a warehouse. The test run of the heavy-duty truck involved transporting 24,000 kg of load on urban and extra-urban (local and intercity) roads. The exhaust emissions and fuel mileage were determined for each of the stages as well as for the entire research cycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 26003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Ethanol Admixtures with Gasoline on Fuel Atomization Characteristics Using High-Pressure Injectors

by Zbigniew Stępień, Ireneusz Pielecha, Filip Szwajca and Wojciech Cieślik

Energies 2022, 15(8), 2926; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082926 - 15 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1912

Abstract

Correct fuel atomization is an important parameter in the process of preparing a combustible mixture. Distortions of the atomization can lead to unfavorable effects in the combustion process. This paper presents an analysis of the fuel atomization characteristics of high-pressure fuel injector tests. [...] Read more.

Correct fuel atomization is an important parameter in the process of preparing a combustible mixture. Distortions of the atomization can lead to unfavorable effects in the combustion process. This paper presents an analysis of the fuel atomization characteristics of high-pressure fuel injector tests. Optically tested injectors were previously tested in a 48 h engine test carried out in accordance with the CEC F-113-KC procedure, using alternative fuels with ethanol blends. As a result of engine tests on fuels containing various amounts of ethanol admixture, the injectors became contaminated. The effect of the deposits on the geometric atomization indicators was determined. This paper focuses on analyzing the area of the atomized spray in a constant volume chamber at different parameters, reflecting real operating conditions. We found that the addition of ethanol (20%) increases the observed spray area for all test points. Complementing the quantitative results is a qualitative analysis of fuel atomization for injector tests previously run on varying fuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Research

18 pages, 1688 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Exploring the Potential of Lignocellulosic Biomass-Derived Polyoxymethylene Dimethyl Ether as a Sustainable Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines

by Chakrapani Nagappan Kowthaman, S. M. Ashrafur Rahman and I. M. R. Fattah

Energies 2023, 16(12), 4679; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124679 - 13 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1277

Abstract

The most effective way to reduce internal combustion engine emissions is to use a sustainable alternative fuel that contains oxygen molecules. Alternative fuels may be used to address a future global energy crisis. Different oxygenated alternative fuels have been investigated in internal combustion [...] Read more.

The most effective way to reduce internal combustion engine emissions is to use a sustainable alternative fuel that contains oxygen molecules. Alternative fuels may be used to address a future global energy crisis. Different oxygenated alternative fuels have been investigated in internal combustion engines. Polyoxymethylene di-methylene ether (PODE), which contains 3–5 CH₂O groups, is currently superior in the field of oxygenated fuels due to its physical and chemical properties. Furthermore, using PODE as a fuel does not necessitate any significant engine modifications. When compared to standard diesel fuel, the use of PODE results in near stoichiometric combustion with less hazardous exhaust gas. It also significantly reduces NO_x emissions due to the lack of C-to-C bonds. Several articles in the literature were found on the manufacturing and application processes for the production of PODE. However, the current review focuses primarily on simplifying the various production technologies, the physical and chemical properties of PODEn and its advantages and disadvantages in ICEs, PODEn application in internal combustion engines and its characteristics, PODE spray analysis, and measurements of the fuel’s physical and chemical characteristics. This review emphasizes the fact that PODE can be used as a sole fuel or in conjunction with fossil fuels and advanced combustion technologies. Because C-C bonds and higher oxygen molecules are not available, the trade-off relationship between nitrogen oxides and soot production is avoided when PODEn is used as a fuel, and combustion efficiency is significantly improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

29 pages, 412 KiB

Open AccessReview

Multiple Fuel Injection Strategies for Compression Ignition Engines

by Tyler Simpson and Christopher Depcik

Energies 2022, 15(14), 5214; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15145214 - 19 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2610

Abstract

Until the early 1990s, the predominant method of fuel delivery for compression ignition engines was the mechanical pump-line-nozzle system. These systems typically consisted of a cam-driven pump that would send pressurized fuel to the fuel injectors where injection timing was fixed according to [...] Read more.

Until the early 1990s, the predominant method of fuel delivery for compression ignition engines was the mechanical pump-line-nozzle system. These systems typically consisted of a cam-driven pump that would send pressurized fuel to the fuel injectors where injection timing was fixed according to the pressure needed to overcome the spring pressure of the injector needle. These configurations were robust; however, they were limited to a single fuel injection event per thermodynamic cycle and respectively low injection pressures of 200–300 bar. Due to their limited flexibility, a poorly mixed and highly stratified air fuel mixture would result in and produce elevated levels of both nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. The onset of stringent emissions standards caused the advancement of fuel injection technology and eventually led to the proliferation of high-pressure common rail electronic fuel injection systems. This system brought about two major advantages, the first being operation at fuel pressures up to 2500 bar. This allowed better atomization and fuel spray penetration that improves mixing and the degree of charge homogenization of the air fuel mixture. The second is that the electronic fuel injector allows for flexible and precise injection timing and quantity while allowing for multiple fuel injection events per thermodynamic cycle. To supply guidance in this area, this effort reviews the experimental history of multiple fuel injection strategies involving both diesel and biodiesel fuels through 2019. Summaries are supplied for each fuel highlighting literature consensus on the mechanisms that influence noise, performance, and emissions based on timing, amount, and type of fuel injected during multiple fuel injection strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application)

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (15 papers)

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI