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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A4: Bio-Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 October 2020) | Viewed by 49523

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Dr. Jorge Martins

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidade do Minho, Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
Interests: internal combustion (IC) engines; automotive engineering; electric vehicles; energetics; thermodynamics; renewable energy technologies; energy conversion; thermal engineering; renewable energy; automotive industry; mechanical engineering

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Throughout the world, governments are anticipating the elimination of the use of conventional fuels in internal combustion (IC) engines starting in 2030 or 2035. Although they refer to the "end of combustion engines", what is actually needed is the reduction of CO2 emissions and pollutant emissions, which would be encouraged by the use of electric vehicles. Such reductions in emissions and pollutants could also potentially be achieved by adapting IC engines to the use of biofuels (CO2) and the refinement of combustion and exhaust (other pollutants) via treatment.

This Special Issue of Energies will focus on the necessary measures and processes required to invert this trend toward the elimination of IC engine use in our cars. Papers on new trends in combustion, ignition, alternative and/or novel types of cycles, hybrid (of SI and CI) combustion, and, obviously, new biofuels are welcome in this Special Issue.

Dr. Jorge Martins
Guest Editor

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Keywords

engine efficiency
combustion
HCCI
new forms of ignition
alternative fuels
hybrid combustion

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 13037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Application of Ion Current/Cylinder Pressure Cooperative Combustion Diagnosis and Control System

by Denghao Zhu, Jun Deng, Jinqiu Wang, Shuo Wang, Hongyu Zhang, Jakob Andert and Liguang Li

Energies 2020, 13(21), 5656; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215656 - 29 Oct 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2820

Abstract

The application of advanced technologies for engine efficiency improvement and emissions reduction also increase the occurrence possibility of abnormal combustions such as incomplete combustion, misfire, knock or pre-ignition. Novel promising combustion modes, which are basically dominated by chemical reaction kinetics show a major difficulty in combustion control. The challenge in precise combustion control is hard to overcome by the traditional engine map-based control method because it cannot monitor the combustion state of each cycle, hence, real-time cycle-resolved in-cylinder combustion diagnosis and control are required. In the past, cylinder pressure and ion current sensors, as the two most commonly used sensors for in-cylinder combustion diagnosis and control, have enjoyed a seemingly competitive relationship, so all related researches only use one of the sensors. However, these two sensors have their own unique features. In this study, the idea is to combine the information obtained from both sensors. At first, two kinds of ion current detection system are comprehensively introduced and compared at the hardware level and signal level. The most promising variant (the DC-Power ion current detection system) is selected for the subsequent experiments. Then, the concept of ion current/cylinder pressure cooperative combustion diagnosis and control system is illustrated and implemented on the engine prototyping control unit. One application case of employing this system for homogenous charge compression ignition abnormal combustion control and its stability improvement is introduced. The results show that a combination of ion current and cylinder pressure signals can provide richer and also necessary information for combustion control. Finally, ion current and cylinder pressure signals are employed as inputs of artificial neural network (ANN) models for combustion prediction. The results show that the combustion prediction performance is better when the inputs are a combination of both signals, instead of using only one of them. This offline analysis proves the feasibility of using an ANN-based model whose inputs are a combination of ion current and pressure signals for better prediction accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends on the Combustion Processes in Spark Ignition Engines)

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22 pages, 7655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Potential of Wobble Plate Opposed Piston Axial Engines for Increased Efficiency

by Paweł Mazuro and Barbara Makarewicz

Energies 2020, 13(21), 5598; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215598 - 26 Oct 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6150

Abstract

Recent announcements regarding the phase out of internal combustion engines indicate the need to make major changes in the automotive industry. Bearing in mind this innovation trend, the article proposes a new approach to the engine design. The aim of this paper is to shed a new light on the forgotten concept of axial engines with wobble plate mechanism. One of their most important advantages is the ease of use of the opposed piston layout, which has recently received much attention. Based on several years of research, the features determining the increase in mechanical efficiency, lower heat losses and the best scavenging efficiency were indicated. Thanks to the applied Variable Compression Ratio (VCR), Variable Angle Shift (VAS) and Variable Port Area (VPA) systems, the engine can operate on various fuels in each of the Spark Ignition (SI), Compression Ignition (CI) and Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)/Controlled Auto Ignition (CAI) modes. In order to quantify the potential of the proposed design, an initial research of the newest PAMAR 4 engine was presented to calculate the torque curve at low rotational speeds. The achieved torque of 500 Nm at 500 rpm is 65% greater than the maximum torque of the OM 651 engine of the same 1.8 L capacity. The findings lead to the conclusion that axial engines are wrongfully overlooked and can significantly improve research on new trends in pollutant elimination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends on the Combustion Processes in Spark Ignition Engines)

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21 pages, 4963 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Individual Cylinder Combustion Optimization to Improve Performance and Fuel Consumption of a Small Turbocharged SI Engine

by Luca Marchitto, Cinzia Tornatore and Luigi Teodosio

Energies 2020, 13(21), 5548; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215548 - 23 Oct 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2670

Abstract

Stringent exhaust emission and fuel consumption regulations impose the need for new solutions for further development of internal combustion engines. With this in mind, a refined control of the combustion process in each cylinder can represent a useful and affordable way to limit cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder variation reducing CO₂ emission. In this paper, a twin-cylinder turbocharged Port Fuel Injection–Spark Ignition engine is experimentally and numerically characterized under different operating conditions in order to investigate the influence of cycle-to-cycle variation and cylinder-to-cylinder variability on the combustion and performance. Significant differences in the combustion behavior between cylinders were found, mainly due to a non-uniform effective in-cylinder air/fuel (A/F) ratio. For each cylinder, the coefficients of variation (CoVs) of selected combustion parameters are used to quantify the cyclic dispersion. Experimental-derived CoV correlations representative of the engine behavior are developed, validated against the measurements in various speed/load points and then coupled to an advanced 1D model of the whole engine. The latter is employed to reproduce the experimental findings, taking into account the effects of cycle-to-cycle variation. Once validated, the whole model is applied to optimize single cylinder operation, mainly acting on the spark timing and fuel injection, with the aim to reduce the specific fuel consumption and cyclic dispersion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends on the Combustion Processes in Spark Ignition Engines)

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15 pages, 6437 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance and Emissions of a Spark Ignition Engine Operated with Gasoline Supplemented with Pyrogasoline and Ethanol

by Luís Durão, Joaquim Costa, Tiago Arantes, F. P. Brito, Jorge Martins and Margarida Gonçalves

Energies 2020, 13(18), 4671; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13184671 - 8 Sep 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2686

Abstract

The partial replacement of fossil fuels by biofuels contributes to a reduction of CO₂ emissions, alleviating the greenhouse effect and climate changes. Furthermore, fuels produced from waste biomass materials have no impact on agricultural land use and reduce deposition of such wastes in landfills. In this paper we evaluate the addition of pyrolysis biogasoline (pyrogasoline) as an additive for fossil gasoline. Pyrogasoline was produced from used cooking oils unfit to produce biodiesel. This study was based on a set of engine tests using binary and ternary mixtures of gasoline with 0, 2.5, and 5% pyrogasoline and ethanol. The use of ternary blends of gasoline and two different biofuels was tested with the purpose of achieving optimal combustion conditions and lower emissions, taking advantage of synergistic effects due to the different properties and chemical compositions of those biofuels. The tests were performed on a spark-ignition engine, operated at full load (100% throttle, or WOT—wide open throttle) between 2000 and 6000 rpm, while recording engine performance and exhaust gases pollutants data. Binary mixtures with pyrogasoline did not improve or worsen the engine’s performance, but the ternary mixtures (gasoline + pyrogasoline + ethanol) positively improved the engine’s performance with torque gains between 0.8 and 3.1% compared to gasoline. All fuels presented CO and unburned hydrocarbons emissions below those produced by this type of engine operated under normal (fossil) gasoline. On the other hand, NO_x emissions from oxygenated fuels had contradictory behaviour compared to gasoline. If we consider the gains achieved by the torque with the ternary mixtures and reductions in polluting emissions obtained by mixtures with pyrogasoline, a future for this fuel can be foreseen as a partial replacement of fossil gasoline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends on the Combustion Processes in Spark Ignition Engines)

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14 pages, 2632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Diethyl Ether Introduction in Emissions and Performance of a Diesel Engine Fueled with Biodiesel-Ethanol Blends

by Márcio Carvalho, Felipe Torres, Vitor Ferreira, Júlio Silva, Jorge Martins and Ednildo Torres

Energies 2020, 13(15), 3787; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13153787 - 23 Jul 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3276

Abstract

Biofuels provide high oxygen content for combustion and do modify properties that influence the engine operation process such as viscosity, enthalpy of vaporization, and cetane number. Some requirements of performance, fuel consumption, efficiency, and exhaust emission are necessary for the validation of these biofuels for application in engines. This work studies the effects of the use of diethyl ether (DEE) in biodiesel-ethanol blends in a DI mechanical diesel engine. The blends used in the tests were B80E20 (biodiesel 80%-ethanol 20%) and B76E19DEE5 (biodiesel 76%-ethanol 19%-DEE 5%). Fossil diesel (D100) and biodiesel (B100) were evaluated as reference fuels. The results revealed similar engine efficiencies among tested fuels at all loads. The use of B100 increased CO and NO_x and decreased THC compared to D100 at the three loads tested. B80E20 fuel showed an increase in NO_x emission in comparison with all fuels tested, which was attributed to higher oxygen content and lower cetane number. THC and CO were also increased for B80E20 compared to B100 and D100. The use of B76E19DEE5 fuel revealed reductions in NO_x and CO emissions, while THC emissions increased. The engine efficiency of B76E19DEE5 was also highlighted at intermediate and more elevated engine load conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends on the Combustion Processes in Spark Ignition Engines)

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19 pages, 5020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Arc-Phase Spark Plug Energy Deposition Characteristics Measured Using a Spark Plug Calorimeter Based on Differential Pressure Measurement

by Kyeongmin Kim, Matthew J. Hall, Preston S. Wilson and Ronald D. Matthews

Energies 2020, 13(14), 3550; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13143550 - 10 Jul 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3374

Abstract

A spark plug calorimeter is introduced for quantifying the thermal energy delivered to unreactive gas surrounding the spark gap during spark ignition. Unlike other calorimeters, which measure the small pressure rise of the gas above the relatively high gauge pressure or relative to an internal reference, the present calorimeter measured the differential rise in pressure relative to the initial pressure in the calorimeter chamber. By using a large portion of the dynamic range of the chip-based pressure sensor, a high signal to noise ratio is possible; this can be advantageous, particularly for high initial pressures. Using this calorimeter, a parametric study was carried out, measuring the thermal energy deposition in the gas and the electrical-to-thermal energy conversion efficiency over a larger range of initial pressures than has been carried out previously (1–24 bar absolute at 298 K). The spark plug and inductive ignition circuit used gave arc-type rather than glow-type discharges. A standard resistor-type automotive spark plug was tested. The effects of spark gap distance (0.3–1.5 mm) and ignition dwell time (2–6 ms) were studied for an inductive-type ignition system. It was found that energy deposition to the gas (nitrogen) and the electrical-to-thermal energy conversion efficiency increased strongly with increasing gas pressure and spark gap distance. For the same ignition hardware and operating conditions, the thermal energy delivered to the gap varied from less than 1 mJ at 1 atm pressure and a gap distance of 0.3 mm to over 25 mJ at a pressure of 24 bar and a gap distance of 1.5 mm. For gas densities that might be representative of those in an engine at the time of ignition, the electrical-to-thermal energy conversion efficiencies ranged from approximately 3% at low pressures (4 bar) and small gap (0.3 mm) to as much as 40% at the highest pressure of 24 bar and with a gap of 1.5 mm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends on the Combustion Processes in Spark Ignition Engines)

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14 pages, 2822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Fuel Economy and Engine Performance through Gasoline Fuel Octane Rating

by José Rodríguez-Fernández, Ángel Ramos, Javier Barba, Dolores Cárdenas and Jesús Delgado

Energies 2020, 13(13), 3499; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13133499 - 7 Jul 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6887

Abstract

The octane number is a measure of the resistance of gasoline fuels to auto-ignition. Therefore, high octane numbers reduce the engine knocking risk, leading to higher compression threshold and, consequently, higher engine efficiencies. This allows higher compression ratios to be considered during the engine design stage. Current spark-ignited (SI) engines use knock sensors to protect the engine from knocking, usually adapting the operation parameters (boost pressure, spark timing, lambda). Moreover, some engines can move the settings towards optimized parameters if knock is not detected, leading to higher performance and fuel economy. In this work, three gasolines with different octane ratings (95, 98 and 100 RON (research octane number)) were fueled in a high-performance vehicle. Tests were performed in a chassis dyno at controlled ambient conditions, including a driving sequence composed of full-load accelerations and two steady-state modes. Vehicle power significantly increased with the octane rating of the fuel, thus decreasing the time needed for acceleration. Moreover, the specific fuel consumption decreased as the octane rating increased, proving that the fuel can take an active part in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The boost pressure, which increased with the octane number, was identified as the main factor, whereas the ignition advance was the second relevant factor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends on the Combustion Processes in Spark Ignition Engines)

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15 pages, 4036 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study of Premixed Gasoline Surrogates Burning Velocities in a Spherical Combustion Bomb at Engine Like Conditions

by Miriam Reyes, Francisco V. Tinaut and Alexandra Camaño

Energies 2020, 13(13), 3430; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13133430 - 3 Jul 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2394

Abstract

In this work are presented experimental values of the burning velocity of iso-octane/air, n-heptane/air and n-heptane/toluene/air mixtures, gasoline surrogates valid over a range of pressures and temperatures similar to those obtained in internal combustion engines. The present work is based on a method to determine the burning velocities of liquid fuels in a spherical constant volume combustion bomb, in which the initial conditions of pressure, temperature and fuel/air equivalence ratios can be accurately established. A two-zone thermodynamic diagnostic model was used to analyze the combustion pressure trace and calculate thermodynamic variables that cannot be directly measured: the burning velocity and mass burning rate. This experimental facility has been used and validated before for the determination of the burning velocity of gaseous fuels and it is validated in this work for liquid fuels. The values obtained for the burning velocity are expressed as power laws of the pressure, temperature and equivalence ratio. Iso-octane, n-heptane and mixtures of n-heptane/toluene have been used as surrogates, with toluene accounting for the aromatic part of the fuel. Initially, the method is validated for liquid fuels by determining the burning velocity of iso-octane and then comparing the results with those corresponding in the literature. Following, the burning velocity of n-heptane and a blend of 50% n-heptane and 50% toluene are determined. Results of the burning velocities of iso-octane have been obtained for pressures between 0.1 and 0.5 MPa and temperatures between 360 and 450 K, for n-heptane 0.1–1.2 MPa and 370–650 K, and for the mixture of 50% n-heptane/50% toluene 0.2–1.0 MPa and 360–700 K. The power law correlations obtained with the results for the three different fuels show a positive dependence with the initial temperature and the equivalence ratio, and an inverse dependence with the initial pressure. Finally, the comparison of the burning velocity results of iso-octane and n-heptane with those obtained in the literature show a good agreement, validating the method used. Analytical expressions of burning velocity as power laws of pressure and unburned temperature are presented for each fuel and equivalence ratio. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends on the Combustion Processes in Spark Ignition Engines)

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34 pages, 4108 KiB

Open AccessReview

Alternative Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines

by Jorge Martins and F. P. Brito

Energies 2020, 13(16), 4086; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13164086 - 6 Aug 2020

Cited by 84 | Viewed by 17253

Abstract

The recent transport electrification trend is pushing governments to limit the future use of Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). However, the rationale for this strong limitation is frequently not sufficiently addressed or justified. The problem does not seem to lie within the engines nor with the combustion by themselves but seemingly, rather with the rise in greenhouse gases (GHG), namely CO₂, rejected to the atmosphere. However, it is frequent that the distinction between fossil CO₂ and renewable CO₂ production is not made, or even between CO₂ emissions and pollutant emissions. The present revision paper discusses and introduces different alternative fuels that can be burned in IC Engines and would eliminate, or substantially reduce the emission of fossil CO₂ into the atmosphere. These may be non-carbon fuels such as hydrogen or ammonia, or biofuels such as alcohols, ethers or esters, including synthetic fuels. There are also other types of fuels that may be used, such as those based on turpentine or even glycerin which could maintain ICEs as a valuable option for transportation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends on the Combustion Processes in Spark Ignition Engines)

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