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Compartment Fire and Safety
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Compartment Fire and Safety

A special issue of Fire (ISSN 2571-6255). This special issue belongs to the section "Fire Risk Assessment and Safety Management in Buildings and Urban Spaces".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2024) | Viewed by 36671

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. W.K. Chow

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Building Services Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Interests: architectural science; fire safety and engineering; sustainable buildings
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Guan-Yuan Wu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Fire Science, Central Police University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
Interests: fire safety and engineering; evacuation modeling; tunnel fires; fire safety management; elastic-magnetic mechanics
Prof. Dr. Chao Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Civil Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
Interests: steel structures in fire; performance of structures in natural fire; integrated fire-structure simulation; reliability of fire protection for structures; high temperature creep; hybrid fire testing; fiber optical sensing in fire, etc.
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Young-Jin Kwon

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Division of Safety and Fire Protection Engineering, College of Engineering, Hoseo University, Asan, Chungcheongnam-do, Korea
Interests: fire dynamics; fire safety design; fire risk analysis and so on
Prof. Dr. Nugroho Yulianto Sulistyo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok City, Indonesia
Interests: fire; safety; coal; industrial safety

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues, 

People are occupying compartments in buildings in dense urban areas and enclosed spaces such as train cars. As the number of fires—including arson and terrorist attack fires—appears to be increasing in the past decades, compartment fire safety must be carefully considered.

Fundamental scientific research on flashovers for different room fires will lead to the development of more appropriate firefighting strategies. The room fire scenarios that lead to more extensive fires and their associated changes in compartment fire characteristics, including fuel mass loss rate and flame characteristics of the operating system, are exciting topics to be further studied.

This Special Issue is proposed with the aim of achieving a better scientific understanding of room fires under different ventilation conditions.

Performance-based design (PBD) or fire engineering approach (FEA) allow justification of the fire hazards of new architecture features that fail to comply with the fire safety codes. Research results compiled from this Special Issue will be of high pragmatic value to PBD and FEA.

This Special Issue aims to update on different aspects of fire science, such as burning regimes, flame patterns, flashover, etc., in compartment fire research toward matching new styles of living and travel. This Special Issue provides a platform for colleagues to present the latest developments in compartment fire and safety in addition to the possible fire protection implications for associated regulations and standards. Original fundamental and applied research employing experimental, theoretical, and computational methods and case studies that contribute toward increasing the understanding of and improving compartment fire and safety are welcome.

Potential beneficiaries of the proposed Special Issue will be those affected by the fire hazards scenarios identified in this project for the PBD–FEA study. Results will be applied in drafting fire safety management guidelines on existing buildings with high occupancy. In the long term, fire codes could be drafted for the next generation of buildings.

For this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas of interest may include (but are not limited to) the following:

  • Analytical studies and fire models on compartment fire.
  • Experimental studies on compartment fires in bench-scale, medium-scale, full-scale, and real-scale physical modeling.
  • Numerical simulations of compartment fires and applications of advanced new software, verification, and validation of mathematical characteristics of key equations.
  • Compartment fires of different geometrical aspects and types use risks, including atria, tunnels, tall buildings, underground spaces, mini-storages, transport vehicles, airplanes, ships, and submarines.
  • Fire safety provisions, including fire safety management strategy from compartment fire research.
  • Support for firefighting.

Example topics include:

Compartment fires of different geometrical aspects and types, including atria, tunnels, tall buildings, underground spaces, mini-storages, transport vehicles, airplanes, ships, and submarines.

Fire safety provisions for compartments, fire safety management strategy.

Fire dynamics and materials, fire models, fire hazard assessment, passive and active fire protection systems, fire safety management, impact on structure behavior, industrial fires, fire investigation, fire services, fire protection of cultural heritage artifacts, tall buildings, tunnel fires, fire safety of green buildings, performance-based design, new technologies and methods, and case studies of fire accidents are welcome.

Prof. Dr. W.K. Chow
Prof. Dr. Guan-Yuan Wu
Prof. Dr. Chao Zhang
Prof. Dr. Young-Jin Kwon
Prof. Dr. Nugroho Yulianto Sulistyo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fire is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • compartment fires
  • ventilation-controlled fires
  • physical modeling
  • numerical simulations
  • fire safety provisions

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue polices can be found here.

Published Papers (16 papers)

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15 pages, 578 KiB  
Article
Understanding Compartmentation Failure for High-Rise Timber Buildings
by Agustín H. Majdalani, Ignacio Calderón, Wolfram Jahn and José L. Torero
Fire 2024, 7(6), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7060190 - 5 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 896
Abstract
The traditional concept of compartmentation guaranteed by fire resistance is mainly concerned with the problem of destructive internal spread potential. External convective spread potential pertains to the loss of compartmentation associated with windows and facade systems. As such, it is assumed that internal [...] Read more.
The traditional concept of compartmentation guaranteed by fire resistance is mainly concerned with the problem of destructive internal spread potential. External convective spread potential pertains to the loss of compartmentation associated with windows and facade systems. As such, it is assumed that internal fire spread occurs following mechanisms of excessive heat conduction and/or successive failure of the compartment boundaries, which can be, in most cases, conservatively characterised using traditional methods of performance assessment such as fire resistance. Nevertheless, external fire spread represents a potentially more effective route by which fire can spread through the convective advancement of flames and hot gases. This is particularly important in cases such as timber construction, where the presence of exposed timber can result in increased convective spread potential and where loss of compartmentation can result in disproportionate consequences. A simplified compartment fire model is proposed with the objective of quantifying the fuel contribution of exposed timber elements to the compartment fire and determining the impact of variable percentages of exposed timber on the convective spread potential. The overall results show that the convective fire spread potential increases with the increasing percentage of available timber. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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19 pages, 5741 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Fire Safety: Real-Scale Experimental Analysis of External Thermal Insulation Composite System Façades’ Behavior in Fire
by Florin Bode, Adrian Simion, Ion Anghel, Mihnea Sandu and Daniel Banyai
Fire 2023, 6(12), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6120451 - 24 Nov 2023
Viewed by 2846
Abstract
In the unfortunate event of a fire, within the context of the evolution of façade fires, with a specific focus on the utilization of polystyrene thermal insulation (external thermal insulation composite system façades—ETICS façades), this study delves into the investigation of fires ignited [...] Read more.
In the unfortunate event of a fire, within the context of the evolution of façade fires, with a specific focus on the utilization of polystyrene thermal insulation (external thermal insulation composite system façades—ETICS façades), this study delves into the investigation of fires ignited by containers containing plastic bottles. Through an examination of the fluctuating temperatures within the affected room and its adjacent areas, as well as an assessment of the fire’s impact on polystyrene thermal insulation, this paper underscores the significance of incorporating non-combustible barriers into the building’s thermal insulation system. The tests conducted revealed that the temperature inside the room reached a maximum of 1100 °C, subsequently decreasing to 800 °C at a height of 2.5 m and approximately 400 °C at a height of 5 m. For this research, two 1100-L containers of household waste were employed, each weighing 45.5 kg and possessing a gross calorific value of 46.97 MJ/kg, with 10.7 kg of PET bottles inside, characterized by a higher calorific value of 23.90 MJ/kg as the source of the fire. Heat release rate highest values were obtained between 11 and 17 min, with a maximum value of 4919 kW. Thus, even in the absence of specific legislation, this study emphasizes the imperative need to establish safety distances for the storage of household waste away from the building’s façade to mitigate the risk of fire propagation, particularly in relation to materials such as polystyrene thermal insulation. Furthermore, in certain situations, extensive fire experiments on a grand scale, like the one undertaken in this research, hold a crucial position in confirming numerical findings for global researchers. This process assures the reliability and real-world usefulness of fire safety studies through the experimental outcomes presented in this investigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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17 pages, 3952 KiB  
Article
Fire and Rescue Services Reconfiguration for Better Dealing with Post-Flashover Building Fires
by Martin Lyubomirov Ivanov and Cheuk Lun Chow
Fire 2023, 6(11), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6110439 - 16 Nov 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1790
Abstract
The reconfiguration of fire and rescue services is the focus of this research. The main purpose is to propose an alternative organizational model for better dealing with post-flashover building fires. The primary source of empirical information is a survey involving 267 managers from [...] Read more.
The reconfiguration of fire and rescue services is the focus of this research. The main purpose is to propose an alternative organizational model for better dealing with post-flashover building fires. The primary source of empirical information is a survey involving 267 managers from the Bulgarian fire and rescue services to gather insights. The research methodology meticulously encompasses the identification of changes concerning the efficiency and effectiveness of the fire and rescue services, the discernment of inherent challenges, the definition of specific factors and criteria relevant to their activities, and the determination of strategic priorities. The goal is to suggest a new, more efficient way to organize these services in Bulgaria, whose approach can be applicable to other contexts in similar conditions as well. The proposed model suggests that the Bulgarian fire and rescue services should work independently from the Ministry of Interior as the State Agency under the Council of Ministers. In addition, a comparison between this newly proposed model and the current one is conducted to highlight its potential advantages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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19 pages, 11525 KiB  
Article
Flashover in Aircraft Cargo Compartment at Different Pressures: Experimental and Modeling Study
by Mengling Li, Yinglong Chen, Yudie Zhao and Jingdong Wang
Fire 2023, 6(11), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6110415 - 27 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1897
Abstract
The increasing incidence of aircraft cargo compartment fires in recent years has caused heavy losses and drawn attention to understanding the combustion process, especially under low pressure. The present paper aims at exploring the conditions of flashover at different pressures. Experiments were conducted [...] Read more.
The increasing incidence of aircraft cargo compartment fires in recent years has caused heavy losses and drawn attention to understanding the combustion process, especially under low pressure. The present paper aims at exploring the conditions of flashover at different pressures. Experiments were conducted in Guanghan (96 kPa) and Kangding (60 kPa), which are located at different altitudes. Five different sizes of pool fires were tested and smoke temperature and heat flux were measured for flashover criteria analysis. Corresponding simulations were performed using a commercial software FDS to examine the pressure effect on the flashover phenomenon and to validate the simulation results. The critical conditions for the onset of flashover in a 1/4 MPS compartment were found to be (1) an average upper layer temperature of about 450 °C at 96 kPa or about 550 °C at 60 kPa, and (2) radiant heat flux at floor level of about 10 to 15 kW/m2 at 96 kPa or 20 to 25 kW/m2 at 60 kPa. By using the average upper layer temperature as a criterion in modeling, a relatively accurate prediction of flashover onset time could be obtained at 96 kPa and a delay of about 25 s was found at 60 kPa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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12 pages, 4987 KiB  
Article
Fire Risk of Polyethylene (PE)-Based Foam Blocks Used as Interior Building Materials and Fire Suppression through a Simple Surface Coating: Analysis of Vulnerability, Propagation, and Flame Retardancy
by Yongtae Jeon, Jungwoo Park, Jongyoung Park and Chankyu Kang
Fire 2023, 6(9), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6090350 - 8 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2724
Abstract
Building fires can spread through surface combustion of both combustible and interior finishing materials. Recently, the use of foam blocks as interior materials for high-rise residential buildings has increased. However, as foam blocks are primarily composed of polyethylene, they are not flame-retardant and [...] Read more.
Building fires can spread through surface combustion of both combustible and interior finishing materials. Recently, the use of foam blocks as interior materials for high-rise residential buildings has increased. However, as foam blocks are primarily composed of polyethylene, they are not flame-retardant and can readily burn and the fire can spread, leading to large-scale damage. Herein, the fire hazard and diffusion characteristics of foam blocks were compared with those of flame-retardant and general wallpapers to confirm the risk of fire. The fire risk of the foam blocks was confirmed using flammability, cone calorimetry, and spread-of-flame analyses. Based on a comparative analysis of the fire risk of foam blocks, the average total heat release was 11.2 MJ/m. This is approximately three times higher than the average heat release rate of the flame-retardant wallpaper and approximately two times higher than that of the general wallpaper. The foam blocks ignited rapidly owing to fire and generated large amounts of combustion gas and heat. To prevent such a fire, 5 wt% montmorillonite (MMT) was simply coated after surface modification to suppress the occurrence of fire. Various flame-retardant materials, surface modifications, and fire safety systems must be developed to prevent fire hazards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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14 pages, 3550 KiB  
Article
Upward Fire Spread Hazard of Vertical Greenery Systems: A Comparative Study with External Thermal Insulation Composite System and Double-Skin Façade
by Tharindu Lakruwan Wickremanayake Karunaratne and Cheuk Lun Chow
Fire 2023, 6(5), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6050200 - 12 May 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1715
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that vertical greenery systems (VGS) carry a significant fire threat when not properly looked after. Building on this, the fire hazard of VGS was compared to two other thermally efficient building façade systems (TEBFS), namely external thermal insulation composite [...] Read more.
Recent studies have shown that vertical greenery systems (VGS) carry a significant fire threat when not properly looked after. Building on this, the fire hazard of VGS was compared to two other thermally efficient building façade systems (TEBFS), namely external thermal insulation composite systems (ETICS) and double-skin façade (DSF). Numerical simulations were conducted in the fire dynamic simulator (FDS). A fire initiated as a room fire of 1 MW followed by a window-ejected flame on a 12 m tall and 9 m wide front façade with a TEBFS. Three scenarios for each TEBFS were simulated for better comparison. Rapid upward fire spread (UFS) was observed in the VGS scenarios, recording average UFS rates of 8.97, 5.51 and 2.86 cms−1 compared to the scenarios of the other 2 TEBFS where the flame failed to reach the top of the façade within the stipulated simulation time of 300 s. The maximum temperatures reached along the façade in VGS scenarios were much higher than those in the other two TEBFS. In conclusion, the fire hazard of VGS in certain conditions is much higher compared to the fire scenarios of ETICS and DSF that are scrutinised by building codes in many countries for fire safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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15 pages, 2644 KiB  
Article
Modelling and Numerical Simulation of a Compartment Fire: Flow Rate Behaviour at Opening
by Ahmed El-kebir Iya, Alban Fabrice Epée, Philippe Onguéné Mvogo, Justin Tégawendé Zaida and Ruben Mouangue
Fire 2023, 6(5), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6050185 - 3 May 2023
Viewed by 1599
Abstract
The modelling of fire behaviour in a compartment is the subject of this work. A small-scale experimental study was carried out in a compartment sized 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m with a single door with a width of 0.2 m [...] Read more.
The modelling of fire behaviour in a compartment is the subject of this work. A small-scale experimental study was carried out in a compartment sized 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m with a single door with a width of 0.2 m and a height of 0.4 m. The collected results were converted to full-scale results using Froude modelling. The objective of this study was to see how ventilation affects fuel decomposition rate, gas flow rate at the opening and the power generated inside the compartment. This small-scale experimental study allowed us to determine four values of the fuel’s (diesel) mass loss rate, which correspond to four values of the ventilation factor. Numerical simulation using Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) software was used to show the gas’ behaviour at the opening and the variation of the power generated inside the compartment. The vertical profiles of the experimental and numerical temperatures were compared. It was found that the dimensions of the opening have a significant influence on the power generated inside the compartment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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13 pages, 5106 KiB  
Article
Fire Behavior in a Hermetic Pressurization Building for Reducing the Effects of High Altitude: A Case Study
by Jian-Ping Yuan, Shi-Jie Li, Kun Zhang, Kai-Qiang Wang, Zhi-Mao Liu, Zhi-Wu Ye, Ji-Yun Zhou and Chao Zhang
Fire 2023, 6(5), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6050178 - 26 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1468
Abstract
Hermetic pressurized buildings have been developed to reduce the effects of high altitude. The behavior and effect of fire in this new type of building have not been studied before. Unlike common buildings, the inside pressure in this new type of building is [...] Read more.
Hermetic pressurized buildings have been developed to reduce the effects of high altitude. The behavior and effect of fire in this new type of building have not been studied before. Unlike common buildings, the inside pressure in this new type of building is maintained at around standard atmospheric pressure, which is significantly higher than the outside environment pressure in high altitude regions. In addition, at the early stage of a fire, the oxygen required to maintain combustion in the sealed building is supplied by mechanical vents (if in operation) instead of opening windows or doors as in common buildings. This paper presents a case study on the behavior of fire in a sealed pressurized hotel building located in Tibet. Fire dynamics simulator (FDS) is used to study fire behavior under different design fire scenarios. Available evacuation time under different fire scenarios are obtained by analyzing oxygen concentration, gas content, temperature, visibility and other indicators. Based on this, a fire protection design scheme is suggested. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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15 pages, 2254 KiB  
Article
Zonal Turbulence Modeling Approach for Simulating Compartment Fire for Initial Hazard Assessment
by Wai Kuen Mok and Wan Ki Chow
Fire 2023, 6(4), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6040134 - 24 Mar 2023
Viewed by 1442
Abstract
The flow field driven by a compartment fire usually contains several flow zones with different physical structures. As each type of turbulence model has its own predominant application area, it is logical to apply two or more simple turbulence models to the same [...] Read more.
The flow field driven by a compartment fire usually contains several flow zones with different physical structures. As each type of turbulence model has its own predominant application area, it is logical to apply two or more simple turbulence models to the same fire-induced flow field at different locations according to their predominant features to yield a comparatively simple, accurate, and stable zonal turbulence model. A zonal turbulence model, which is a hybrid of the standard k-ε model and its modification, is developed in this paper. The model is tested and compared with the experimental data. A promising improvement is observed when comparing it with the base turbulence model, i.e., the standard k-ε model, especially in the recirculating region near the corners of the compartment. This approach in having different zones in the plume region will be useful for handling more scenarios at the initial stage of fire hazard assessments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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16 pages, 3866 KiB  
Article
Intrinsic Smoke Properties and Prediction of Smoke Production in National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Smoke Chamber
by Rodolphe Sonnier, Loïc Dumazert, Mathieu Vangrevelynghe, Clément Brendlé and Laurent Ferry
Fire 2023, 6(3), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6030109 - 10 Mar 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2323
Abstract
Smoke production in a smoke chamber is characterized by the accumulation of smoke and the continuous consumption of oxygen leading to a vitiated atmosphere. However, a method is proposed to predict the smoke evolution in a smoke chamber at 25 kW/m2 by [...] Read more.
Smoke production in a smoke chamber is characterized by the accumulation of smoke and the continuous consumption of oxygen leading to a vitiated atmosphere. However, a method is proposed to predict the smoke evolution in a smoke chamber at 25 kW/m2 by using material properties calculated from a cone calorimeter, as already shown in a previous article. These properties represent the ability of a material to produce smoke at a specific mass loss rate. The influence of a flame retardant on these properties can be used as a quantitative measurement of its action on smoke production. These properties can be calculated at another heat flux than 25 kW/m2. The knowledge of the curve “mass loss rate = f(time)” in a smoke chamber is still required, but this curve is close to that measured in a cone calorimeter at the same heat flux. The results prove that the smoke production in a smoke chamber and cone calorimeter is qualitatively similar, i.e., the decrease of oxygen content in a smoke chamber has no influence on smoke (at least as long as optical density does not exceed 800). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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18 pages, 79750 KiB  
Article
On the Large Eddy Simulation Modelling of Water Suppression Systems Droplet Impact and Coverage Area
by Ivan Miguel De Cachinho Cordeiro, Hengrui Liu, Anthony Chun Yin Yuen, Timothy Bo Yuan Chen, Ao Li, Cheng Wang, Ruifeng Cao and Guan Heng Yeoh
Fire 2022, 5(5), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5050165 - 13 Oct 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2420
Abstract
In this article, a collective database from validated numerical simulation has been established to study the suppression effects of water-based suppression systems under a single-compartment fire scenario at various suppression configurations and fire locations. Five fuel locations along the axis between the centre [...] Read more.
In this article, a collective database from validated numerical simulation has been established to study the suppression effects of water-based suppression systems under a single-compartment fire scenario at various suppression configurations and fire locations. Five fuel locations along the axis between the centre and corner of the room were configurated to dynamically analyse how the horizontal distance between the nozzle and fuel pan affects the heat release rate (HRR), temperature cooling phenomena at different heights and also the velocity profile. Throughout the fuel pan relocations, the water-mist system has achieved an average suppression time of 25 s for all the locations, it was found that the water mist system can effectively control the fire under 200 °C that is distanced over 2 m spanwise displacement from the nozzle against the fire, while the sprinkler has exhibited an excellent fuel surface cooling effect due to large momentum and heat capacity within the coverage area with an average suppression time of 50 s. The results of this study have further explored the spray coverage and droplet penetrability of different suppression systems at different locations corresponding to the fire source, and the quantitative assessment of fuel locations could also contribute to the future development of performance-based fire safety designs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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32 pages, 8084 KiB  
Article
Compartment Fire Behavior at the Stages of Detection, Containment and Suppression Using Water Mist
by Geniy Kuznetsov, Roman Volkov, Aleksandr Sviridenko and Alena Zhdanova
Fire 2022, 5(5), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5050155 - 30 Sep 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2660
Abstract
This paper presents experimental research findings regarding the characteristics of fire safety equipment activation before and after a water-based fire suppression system is triggered. A group of typical indoor combustible materials (wood, linoleum, cardboard, paper) were used to construct Class A model fires [...] Read more.
This paper presents experimental research findings regarding the characteristics of fire safety equipment activation before and after a water-based fire suppression system is triggered. A group of typical indoor combustible materials (wood, linoleum, cardboard, paper) were used to construct Class A model fires in the experiments. The three most frequent fire causes were reproduced: the careless handling of fire (open flame), the unsafe operation of heating equipment and electrical short circuits. To identify the fire behavior, an automated system including fire (heat, smoke, flame) detectors, contact and non-contact temperature measurement instruments, a gas analysis system and video recording equipment was employed. Following the experiments, the most efficient (in terms of detection speed and reliability) combinations of technical equipment that are necessary and sufficient to identify all the combustion stages of substances and materials were determined. The efficient consumption of a fire-extinguishing agent was found to be possible when fire development stages were controlled. Guidelines on creating automated fire prevention systems in buildings were provided. These have the potential to significantly speed up compartment fire suppression. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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21 pages, 4908 KiB  
Article
In-Depth Assessment of Cross-Passage Critical Velocity for Smoke Control in Large-Scale Railway Tunnel Fires
by Timothy Bo Yuan Chen, Anthony Chun Yin Yuen, Ivan Miguel De Cachinho Cordeiro, Hengrui Liu, Ruifeng Cao, Amy Ellison and Guan Heng Yeoh
Fire 2022, 5(5), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5050140 - 20 Sep 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2962
Abstract
Demand for underground railways has rapidly increased due to accelerated urbanisation and population growth. This has elevated the importance of tunnel designs with adequate fire safety and protection measures. However, due to intricate modern rail tunnel designs, prescriptive codes are often difficult to [...] Read more.
Demand for underground railways has rapidly increased due to accelerated urbanisation and population growth. This has elevated the importance of tunnel designs with adequate fire safety and protection measures. However, due to intricate modern rail tunnel designs, prescriptive codes are often difficult to implement and lead to over-conservative design. In this study, the current state of tunnel fire analysis was reviewed with a focus on Australia. A large-eddy simulation (LES)-based fire model was applied to investigate the temperature and smoke dispersion from a 2 MW metro tunnel fire case scenario to the cross-passage. A total of 28 cases with various cross-passage ventilation settings were examined, including longitudinal tunnel velocity, cross-passage velocity, train location relative to the cross-passage and fire location. The modelling showed that a 0.84 m/s critical velocity was sufficient for smoke control in the cross-passage. Furthermore, two empirical methods for cross-passage critical velocity were performed, which showed utilisation of the Froude number produced a less conservative critical velocity (0.610 m/s) compared to the dimensionless method (0.734 m/s). Nevertheless, both numerical and empirical results were significantly lower than the standard 1.0 m/s minimum flow rate for smoke control (AS1668.1). The results provide preliminary evidence towards the need for revision of current tunnel fire standards and response protocols. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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22 pages, 3034 KiB  
Article
Thermal Hazard and Smoke Toxicity Assessment of Building Polymers Incorporating TGA and FTIR—Integrated Cone Calorimeter Arrangement
by Preety Moni Doley, Anthony Chun Yin Yuen, Imrana Kabir, Luzhe Liu, Cheng Wang, Timothy Bo Yuan Chen and Guan Heng Yeoh
Fire 2022, 5(5), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5050139 - 18 Sep 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2972
Abstract
Building polymers are highly flammable and produce a vast amount of toxic chemical compounds in the event of a fire which can lead to potential incapacitation and death. To gain an in-depth understanding of this issue, smoke toxicity and thermal characteristics of seven [...] Read more.
Building polymers are highly flammable and produce a vast amount of toxic chemical compounds in the event of a fire which can lead to potential incapacitation and death. To gain an in-depth understanding of this issue, smoke toxicity and thermal characteristics of seven commonly used building polymers were analysed through a systematic fire performance evaluation system using a Thermogravimetric Analyzer and a Cone Calorimeter coupled with an FTIR arrangement. Four Fractional Effective Dose (FED) expressions were compared to assess the smoke toxicity of the fire effluents based on different assumptions. It was found that FEDN2, calculated using Purser’s equation, reported the highest values of FED with the following order of potential smoke toxicity at 50 kW/m2 radiative heat flux: LDPU > HDPU > PE > HDEPS > XPS > EVA > LDEPS. Furthermore, fire performance evaluation of the polymers was carried out by considering three key fire risk parameters, i.e., flashover propensity, total heat released, and toxic hazard. At 50 kW/m2 radiative heat flux, HDPU exhibited 11.7 times flashover propensity compared to the least flammable polymer (HDEPS), EVA exhibited 5 times total heat release compared to the polymer with the lowest total heat release (LDEPS) and, LDPU exhibited 6.7 potential times toxic hazard compared to the least toxic polymer (EVA). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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14 pages, 3227 KiB  
Technical Note
A Probabilistic Model for Fire Temperature Rise in High-Rise Residential Buildings under the Action of Uncertain Factors
by Jiyao Yin, Tianyao Tang, Guowei Zhang, Lin Zhou and Peng Deng
Fire 2023, 6(4), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6040147 - 3 Apr 2023
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Abstract
Due to the randomness of interior combustibles, wall thermal inertia, and opening factor, the fire temperature rise in high-rise residential buildings is uncertain. This study investigated 38 urban high-rise residential buildings, created the probability density functions of fire load density, opening factor, and [...] Read more.
Due to the randomness of interior combustibles, wall thermal inertia, and opening factor, the fire temperature rise in high-rise residential buildings is uncertain. This study investigated 38 urban high-rise residential buildings, created the probability density functions of fire load density, opening factor, and wall thermal inertia, and constructed random fire scenarios for urban high-rise residential buildings. On this basis, relying on the Latin Hypercube Sampling method, this study further explored the probabilistic model for fire temperature rise in urban high-rise residential buildings under the action of uncertain factors, generated the possible temperature rise curves of fires in urban high-rise residential buildings and their probability distribution, and established the most representative temperature rise curve. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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14 pages, 1400 KiB  
Case Report
Characteristic Analysis of Four Major Nighttime Fire Cases on Fire Safety of Long-Term Care Institutions Using Fire Protection Defense-In-Depth Strategy
by Liang-Sheng Wu, Ryh-Nan Pan, Shiuan-Cheng Wang, Chung-Hwei Su and Wen-Chien Wu
Fire 2023, 6(3), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6030118 - 13 Mar 2023
Viewed by 2117
Abstract
Providing high-quality care services and fire safety for long-term care institutions is an important issue in Taiwan, which became an aging society in 2018. The fire incidents in Taiwan over the years show that nighttime fires in care institutions often cause serious casualties. [...] Read more.
Providing high-quality care services and fire safety for long-term care institutions is an important issue in Taiwan, which became an aging society in 2018. The fire incidents in Taiwan over the years show that nighttime fires in care institutions often cause serious casualties. It is necessary not only to understand the causes of serious nighttime fire incidents that have occurred but also to draw lessons from the fires that have been put out without causing injuries. In this study, the top two serious nighttime fire accidents in long-term care institutions in the past two decades in Taiwan were analyzed based on the publicly official and academic literature utilizing fire protection defense-in-depth strategies. For comparison, two other nighttime fire cases with similar scenarios but no casualties were also analyzed in depth about the cause of no casualties. The buildings of the four nighttime fires were equipped with fire protection equipment in their public areas. The theoretical basis of the research is the fire protection defense-in-depth strategy. In both categories of severe casualties and no severe casualties, one was caused by arson and the other one by an electrical fire, with the ignition point of a fire in the storeroom and the other in the ward. However, the end results were quite different. The analyzed results showed that the severe fires lasted for about an hour, while the fires without casualties were put out within 15 min. A well-constructed second layer of defense measures could effectively contain a fire, and an effective third layer of measures could avoid casualties. The death rate of personnel can be reduced from a dozen to zero, and the burning time is also greatly reduced. The results could be used as a reference for emergency measures in long-term care institutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compartment Fire and Safety)
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