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A special issue of Fire (ISSN 2571-6255). This special issue belongs to the section "Fire Science Models, Remote Sensing, and Data".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (29 February 2024) | Viewed by 24600

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Ying Zhang

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Guest Editor

School of Safety Science and Emergency Management, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
Interests: cable and electrical fires; thermal safety of new energy; fire dynamics; modelling and investigation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Xiaoyu Ju

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
Interests: fire dynamics; flame spread mechanism over solid material; fire modeling; pyrolysis and ignition

Dr. Xianjia Huang

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Guest Editor

Joint Laboratory of Nuclear Power Plant Fire Safety, Guangzhou Institute of Industrial Technology, Guangzhou 511458, China
Interests: cable fire; fire risk analysis in nuclear power plant; fire dynamics

Dr. Fuchao Tian

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Guest Editor

College of Emergency Management and Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
Interests: coal mine hazard prevention and control; coal spontaneous combustion; gas infrared spectrum analysis; mine emergency rescue; mine ventilation; thermodynamical disaster science

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Cables, as the "arteries" and "nerves" of the national economy, are widely used in energy transmission, information transmission and various motor instruments. However, with the increasing demand for electricity and the inevitable aging, cable and electrical fires have become the main cause of fire accidents and even lead to secondary disasters, such as gas/dust explosions in mines, or nuclear leakage in nuclear power plants. Despite a lot of research on the characteristics (HRR, FPI, etc.) of cable fire have been carried out for cable fire risk assessment, there are still many problems that have not been solved, including high-precision models for predicting the occurrence, development and extinguish of cable fire, the method for detecting or preventing cable fire, etc.

This Special Issue aims to attract the latest progress around the cable fire, including the methods or model for predicting the cable ignition, the flame spread behaviors and its extinguish, the technologies or strategies for detecting the cable fires in confined spaces, or for cable fire prevention, and so on.

In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following:

Mechanisms of the ignition, propagation and the distinction of cable fire;
Models for flame spread over cable;
Risk assessment on cable fires;
New techniques or strategies for cable fire detection/prevention;
Scale correlation of cable fire;
Numerical simulation of cable fire.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Ying Zhang
Dr. Xiaoyu Ju
Dr. Xianjia Huang
Dr. Fuchao Tian
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fire is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

cable fire
electrical fire
fire modeling
flame spread
risk assessment
cable fire detection
fire prevention

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Related Special Issue

Photovoltaic and Electrical Fires: 2nd Edition in Fire

Published Papers (11 papers)

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11 pages, 5764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of Damage Caused by Oil Fire in Cable Passage to Tunnel Cable

by Feng Liu, Jiaqing Zhang, Mengfei Gu, Yushun Liu, Tao Sun and Liangpeng Ye

Fire 2024, 7(4), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7040147 - 19 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1178

Abstract

In order to evaluate the damage to tunnel cables caused by fire caused by leakage of transformer oil into a cable channel, the fire characteristics of different volumes of transformer oil flowing into a cable channel were analyzed by numerical simulation. The results show that when the total leakage of transformer oil is less than or equal to 3 L, the fire will end within 120 s, and when the total leakage is greater than or equal to 5 L, the fire duration will exceed 900 s. When the leakage amount is 1 L, the cable only burns slightly, and when the leakage amount is 3~12 L, the cable burns obviously. The combustion of the cable is mainly concentrated between 15 s and 75 s, and the overall combustion rate of the cable increases first and then decreases. When the total leakage is greater than or equal to 8 L, the damage distance of the middle and lower layer cable is the smallest. When the total leakage is less than or equal to 5 L, the damage distance of the lower layer cable is the smallest, and the damage distance of the lower layer cable, middle and lower layer cable, and middle and upper layer cable is less than half of the length of the cable channel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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15 pages, 2348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Fire Hazard of Different Cables Based on Cone Calorimetry

by Bobo Shi, Chenyang Yang and Haifan Long

Fire 2023, 6(11), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6110431 - 9 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1892

Abstract

In recent years, due to the extensive application and inherent fire hazard of cable materials, the combustion characteristics of frequently used cables, including electrical cables, wires, optical fibers, and network cables have been studied based on ISO 5660 cone calorimetry. The fire hazard associated with these cables under different radiation intensities was explored in this study, with parameters such as time to ignition (TTI), heat release rate per unit area (HRRPUA), peak heat release rate (PHRR), total heat release (THR), and mass loss rate (MLR) being investigated for each cable type. Based on an experimental analysis, the risk of fire for all four cable types was augmented by an increase in the external radiation intensity, with electrical cables considered as posing the greatest risk. Regarding smoke toxicity, the lowest risk of smoke toxicity was demonstrated by the network cable, with an FED (fractional effective dose) of 0.0203, followed by optical fibers, with an FED of 0.0507; electrical wires, with an FED of 0.0417; and electrical cables, with an FED of 0.0501. Notably, no significant distinctions were exhibited by the other three cable types, and the smoke toxicity of all four cables did not reach lethal concentration levels in humans. Consequently, considering both thermal hazard and smoke toxicity, it became evident that electrical cables posed the greatest overall fire hazard. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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11 pages, 872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Experimental Study for Deriving Fire Risk Evaluation Factors for Cables in Utility Tunnels

by Hyun Jeong Seo, Yon Ha Chung and Tae Jung Song

Fire 2023, 6(9), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6090342 - 1 Sep 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1491

Abstract

In this study, we performed three tests to measure the fire-retardant performance of power cables installed in utility tunnels. The standards we applied for testing are ISO 5660-1, NES 713, and IEEE 1202. Specifically, we performed a cone calorimetric analysis, calculated the toxicity index, and measured the flame spread length on material surfaces. Even though the same fire-retardant chemical composites were applied, various differences in fire-retardant performance were found depending on the chemical properties of the cable sheath and insulation. We also found that gaseous substances generated during the burning of cables can serve as important risk assessment factors in fires. We determined that, in addition to the heat generated when the cable burns, the toxic gases emitted at this time can also be a risk factor. This is because it is important to consider any potential risk to a person entering as part of an initial response to an event or accident involving cables installed in utility tunnels. Moreover, in the event of a fire in the cable, there is a risk of hazardous substances flowing into the city center as toxic gases are released. Therefore, we determined that the risk of hazardous gases emitted during cable fire should be reflected in the fire-retardant performance standard. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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18 pages, 3579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Perspective on Hydrogen Chloride Scavenging at High Temperatures for Reducing the Smoke Acidity of PVC Cables in Fires V: Comparison between EN 60754-1 and EN 60754-2

by Iacopo Bassi, Claudia Bandinelli, Francesca Delchiaro, Marco Piana and Gianluca Sarti

Fire 2023, 6(8), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6080326 - 21 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1488

Abstract

Regulation (EU) No 305/2011 lays down harmonized conditions for marketing construction products in the European Union. One of its consequences has been the introduction of the product standard EN 50575 and standard EN 130501-6, concerning power, control, and communication cables permanently installed in buildings to prevent the risk of a fire and its consequences. EN 13501-6 provides the reaction to fire classifications for cables, the test methods to be performed, the requirements to meet a specific reaction to fire, and additional classifications for smoke production, flaming droplets, and acidity. It requires EN 60754-2 as the technical standard to assess acidity, and it defines three classes: a₁, a₂, and a₃ (the less performant). Due to the release of hydrogen chloride during the combustion, acidity is the weak point of PVC cables, which are not yet capable of achieving the a₁ or a₂ classes required for specific locations according to fire risk assessments. EN 13501-6 does not include EN 60754-1, used in harmonized standards outside the scope of Regulation (EU) No 305/2011. EN 60754-1 and EN 60754-2 are common standards for determining halogen gas content, and acidity/conductivity, respectively. While they involve the same type of test apparatus, they differ in heating regimes, final temperatures, and detection methods. In particular, EN 60754-2 requires testing at temperatures between 935–965 °C in the tube furnace, where the sample burns, the smoke is collected in bubblers, and pH and conductivity are measured as an indirect assessment of acidity. On the other hand, the temperature regime of EN 60754-1 is a gradual heating run, followed by isothermal heating at 800 °C. The paper shows that when potent acid scavengers are used in PVC compounds, performing EN 60754-2 with the thermal profile of EN 60754-1 or at 500 °C in isothermal conditions, the evolution of hydrogen chloride changes significantly up to 10 times less than the test performed in isothermal at 950 °C. The reason lies behind the kinetic of hydrogen chloride release during the combustion of PVC compounds: the higher the temperature or faster the heat release, the quicker hydrogen chloride evolution and the lower the probability for the acid scavenger to trap it. Thus, these findings emphasize the “fragility” of EN 60754-2 as a tool for assessing risks associated with the release of hydrogen chloride during fires. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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31 pages, 5409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Perspective on Hydrogen Chloride Scavenging at High Temperatures for Reducing the Smoke Acidity of PVC Cables in Fires, IV: The Impact of Acid Scavengers at High Temperatures on Flame Retardance and Smoke Emission

by Iacopo Bassi, Francesca Delchiaro, Claudia Bandinelli, Laura Mazzocchetti, Elisabetta Salatelli and Gianluca Sarti

Fire 2023, 6(7), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6070259 - 30 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2381

Abstract

In PVC compounds, hydrogen chloride plays a fundamental role in ·H and ·OH radical trapping, lowering the flame energy during combustion. Furthermore, it yields actual Lewis acids promoting the cross-linking of the polyene sequences from PVC degradation and bringing a char layer, protecting PVC items from flames. Therefore, PVC is inherently flame-retarded. However, plasticized PVC requires flame retardants and smoke suppressants to enhance fire performance. Low-smoke acidity PVC compounds have been developed to reduce the HCl emission during combustion and, therefore, the acidity of the smoke. They contain potent acid scavengers capable of acting at high temperatures. They react with hydrogen chloride in the condensed phase, making it unavailable in the gas and even in the condensed phase, compromising the reaction to fire and enhancing the smoke produced during the combustion. The effect of the sequestration of hydrogen chloride in PVC compounds for cables by potent acid scavengers is studied in this paper through measurements of oxygen index, heat release, and smoke production. It is noteworthy that the potent acid scavengers strongly affect parameters such as the oxygen index, the fire growth rate in cone calorimetry, the specific (total) heat capacity, and the specific heat of combustion of fuel gases in micro combustion calorimetry. In some formulations, acid scavengers reduce the oxygen index below the values of the formulations without flame retardants and double their fire growth rate. In fact, they neutralize the action of antimony trioxide and Lewis acid precursors commonly used as flame retardants and smoke suppressants in PVC items, making them prone to ignite, release smoke, and spread flame. A new generation of flame retardants and smoke suppressants is needed to keep together the low-smoke acidity and the fire performance in PVC items. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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13 pages, 4301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Fire Hazard in Electrical Installations Due to Unfavorable Ambient Thermal Conditions

by Seweryn Szultka, Stanislaw Czapp, Adam Tomaszewski and Hayat Ullah

Fire 2023, 6(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6020041 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3696

Abstract

Evaluation of fire hazard caused by electrical installations is a difficult and important topic, and it limits the possibility of loss of life or health of people, as well as the occurrence of significant property damage. In particular, this hazard was caused by power cables and especially photovoltaic (PV) installations. The authors proved that power cables directly exposed to strong solar radiation are likely to exceed maximum permissible temperature in unfavorable ambient conditions. Overheated and damaged cable insulation can be a source of electric shock and a strong leakage current causing fire. In the case of typical PV connectors (MC4 connectors), the main problem is poor contact at the connections of the PV cables. A poor connection can even cause the connector to melt, as shown in this study. In the paper, the authors present a computer simulation regarding critical thermal points of electrical installations, in particular, of the PV type. It may be an indication of what should be paid attention to when designing and implementing such installations. This is important for the safety of people and buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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28 pages, 7368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Anti-Freezing Heating Cable Standard for Fire Prevention

by Baek-Yong Jung, Seung-Mo Je, Hoon-Gi Lee, Hong-Sik Kim, Jong-Young Park, Bu-Yeol Oh, Jung-Woo Park, Jun-Ho Huh and Jae-Hun Lee

Fire 2022, 5(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5060216 - 16 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2244

Abstract

Among the fire reports caused by seasonal devices registered with the Korea Fire Information Center in 2021, fires caused by heating cables accounted for the largest portion with 350 cases. As a result of analyzing the heating cable fires from 2015 to 2021, we have classified the heating cable fires into four types according to the method of winding the heating wire. First, we hypothesized that the temperature is high when the density is high due to the overlap of the hot wires or when there is a thermal insulating material. We predicted that the temperature would rise through a random game and established a reproducibility test plan. In order to check how heat generation changes depending on the winding method of antifreeze heating cables, we selected 10 manufacturers and checked the temperature characteristics according to the test conditions (Paragraph 11, Paragraph 19.101) of the Technical Regulations for Electrical and Telecommunication Products and Components of Korea (K 10013), tested the four methods mentioned in this thesis and compared and analyzed the results. The experiment results indicate that the temperature of the heater part in antifreeze heating cables was mostly higher than the conditions required by the existing standards in cases 1 to 4. In particular, in the case of No. 5 manufacturer’s sample, the temperature of the heating cable of Case 1 was measured to be the highest at 119.0 °C. In addition, as a result of applying the data engineering reproducibility test results in the framework of the random game λ proposed in this thesis, we have derived the same results as the predicted hypothesis. Case 1 refers to the case where a fire occurs due to the heating cable being wrapped around the water pipe and insulation or taped outside; It is one of the methods that users actually use a lot in the field. Based on experiment, we have concluded that the fire risk is high under the Case 1 condition. Thus, the test conditions in the existing K 10013 Standard need to be strengthened according to the Case 1 condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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14 pages, 6194 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Ethanol Air Diffusion Flame Quenching under Transverse AC Electric Field

by Shuai Zhao, Boyun Liu, Bo Zhao, Taiwei Li and Qi Shu

Fire 2022, 5(6), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5060196 - 17 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1953

Abstract

The electric field fire extinguishing technology is an efficient, clean, and new fire extinguishing technology that can be operated at a long distance. In order to study the synergistic mechanism of “electric-flow-heat” in the process of transverse AC electric field fire extinguishing, the ionic wind formed by the influence of electric field on each charged particle during the burning process of ethanol–air diffusion flame is simulated by the non-premixed combustion model, and the experimental phenomenon of flame quenching in the transverse AC electric field is reproduced by means of numerical simulation. The accuracy of the numerical model was verified by comparing the temperature and flow velocity in the region obtained from the simulation with the data measured in the experiment. According to both simulated and experimental phenomena, we present a hypothesis of how the flame is quenched under the influence of an electric field. The next research directions are: (1) improving the accuracy of numerical simulation by building fine models; (2) studying the dynamic mechanism of real flames by particle image velocimetry technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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25 pages, 6370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Perspective on Hydrogen Chloride Scavenging at High Temperatures for Reducing the Smoke Acidity of PVC Cables in Fires. II: Some Examples of Acid Scavengers at High Temperatures in the Condensed Phase

by Gianluca Sarti

Fire 2022, 5(5), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5050142 - 21 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2309

Abstract

In the European Union, according to Regulation (EU) n. 305/2011, cables permanently installed in residential and public buildings need additional classification for acidity. EN 60754-2 is the test method for assessing acidity, and three classes are provided: a1, a2, and a3 (less performant). The research on PVC compounds with low smoke acidity helps to produce cables in the best additional classes for acidity, giving the PVC cables the possibility to be used in medium and high fire risk locations. This paper shows the behavior of some acid scavengers at high temperatures performing EN 60754-2 in isothermal conditions at different temperatures between 400 °C and 950 °C. The test apparatus is a tube furnace where the test specimen is burnt, and the released gases are trapped in bubbling devices containing double deionized water. pH and conductivity are measured, the efficiency of the acid scavengers is assessed, and chemical analysis of the ashes is performed. That allows us to understand why some substances succeed and others fail in trapping hydrogen chloride (HCl). The most important conclusion in this paper is that the higher the temperature, the lower the performance of the acid scavenger, showing that HCl concentration in the gas phase depends strongly on the heating conditions of the test specimen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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Review

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42 pages, 16160 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress on the Fire Characteristics of Electric Cables and Wires

by Feiyang Yu, Shijie Wang, Kaixuan Tang, Yifan Lin, Shasha Wang and Ying Zhang

Fire 2024, 7(6), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7060186 - 30 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1322

Abstract

With the development of the social economy and the improvement of electrification, cables and wires play an important role in people’s lives and industrial development. Meanwhile, the large-scale laying of cables has also made them a fire hazard that cannot be ignored in land construction such as residential buildings, utility tunnels, nuclear power plants, refineries, marine systems such as submarines and ships, and airborne systems such as spacecrafts and aircrafts. In this work, studies on fire the characteristics of cables and wires over the last decades have been reviewed. Based on different experimental forms and objects (laboratory wires and commercial cables), this paper summarizes the theories of the fire dynamics in wire combustion, including the models of ignition and flame propagation, the criteria for blowing off and quenching, and the critical conditions for dripping behavior. The effects of materials, layouts, and environments on wire combustion phenomena such as airflow, ambient pressure, oxygen, gravity, and orientation angle have been discussed in detail according to the theories of heat transfer and combustion. In addition, test standards and studies on the fire behavior and release of toxic gases of commercial cables have also been fully described. Through the summary of the above content, it is expected to build a preliminary theoretical framework and future research directions for researchers in the field of cable fires. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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11 pages, 930 KiB

Open AccessReview

A New Perspective on Hydrogen Chloride Scavenging at High Temperatures for Reducing the Smoke Acidity of PVC Cables in Fires. I: An Overview of the Theory, Test Methods, and the European Union Regulatory Status

by Gianluca Sarti

Fire 2022, 5(5), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5050127 - 27 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2647

Abstract

In the European Union, according to the second basic requirement for construction works of Regulation (EU) n. 305/2011, cables permanently installed in residential and public buildings must be classified in terms of reaction to fire, smoke production, flaming droplets, and acidity. The classification is harmonized; nevertheless, every European Union country decides what kind of classification a cable must have to be installed in a specific location, depending on its fire risk, following the assumption that the higher the fire risk of the area, the higher the fire performance of the cable. According to Regulation (EU) n. 305/2011, the acidity is indirectly assessed by performing EN 60754-2, giving an additional class based on pH and conductivity measurements. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) is one of the gases PVC cables release when they burn. In some applications out of the scope of the Regulation, acid scavengers are commonly used in special-grade PVC compounds to reduce the emission of acidic smoke. In this first part of the paper, the European rules on smoke acidity are presented, a review of the literature on HCl scavenging is performed, and an introduction on HCl scavenging at high temperatures is outlined. The paper shows how different experimental conditions and geometries of the test apparatuses used for assessing the smoke acidity can affect the emission of HCl in the gas phase and what critical issues affect the efficiency of acid scavengers at high temperatures in trapping HCl. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cable and Electrical Fires)

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