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22 pages, 7964 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Temporal and Spatial Evolution Characteristics of the Ecosystem Service Value and Conversion Rate in China’s Key State-Owned Forest Regions

by Xianqiao Huang, Jingye Li, Yue Ren, Yukun Cao and Bo Cao

Forests 2024, 15(5), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050781 - 29 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 943

Abstract

To achieve a sustainable development path that harmonizes ecological and economic considerations, China has advocated the “two mountains” concept: “lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets”. This idea posits that those who protect the environment can economically benefit by selling pristine landscapes [...] Read more.

To achieve a sustainable development path that harmonizes ecological and economic considerations, China has advocated the “two mountains” concept: “lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets”. This idea posits that those who protect the environment can economically benefit by selling pristine landscapes and utilizing rich ecological resources. This paper use “the equivalence factor method” to calculate ecological benefits, introduces a technical measure—the conversion rate of ecosystem service value—and analyzes its temporal and spatial evolution from 2003 to 2020 in the operational areas of 87 state-owned forestry enterprises in Northeast China. The findings show: (1) a significant improvement in ecosystem-service quality, with its value increasing from 404.7 to 850.2 billion CNY between 2003 and 2020. The restoration of the ecological environment in China’s KSFR provides a foundation for economic and social development. (2) A decrease in the economic gains derived by operators from developing protected ecosystems, with the most significant decline observed in economic benefits generated from the supply product, including timber harvesting. However, the industrial structure in KSFR shifted from being dominated by timber production to diversified development, with non-timber forest resources becoming an important part of regional economic growth. (3) Significant potential for realizing the value of ecosystem services, evidenced by an increasing trend in the conversion rates of cultural, regulatory, and supporting services. These findings underscore the effectiveness of China’s natural forest protection and restoration policies in optimizing forest ecology and realizing the “two mountains” concept through appropriate market transactions and ecological compensation mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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15 pages, 972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Festival Activities on Enterprise Production Behavior: A Case Study of the China Bamboo Culture Festival

by Nan Li, Jiang Li, Ke Zhang, Jiaojiao Chen and Peng Wang

Forests 2023, 14(12), 2297; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14122297 - 23 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1240

Abstract

At the present stage, China’s ecological civilization construction has entered a strategic period focusing on carbon reduction, which is also a critical period for achieving the improvement of ecological environment quality. The prosperity of bamboo culture and the development of the bamboo industry [...] Read more.

At the present stage, China’s ecological civilization construction has entered a strategic period focusing on carbon reduction, which is also a critical period for achieving the improvement of ecological environment quality. The prosperity of bamboo culture and the development of the bamboo industry are of great significance in promoting the construction of an ecological civilization in China. Festival activities often have lasting impacts on the development of the host city. They not only promote urban development but also spur the growth of local enterprises in related industries. However, these impacts have been rarely explored by researchers. This paper analyzes how festival activities influence the behavior of host city enterprises from the perspective of stakeholders with a theoretical model. Taking the China Bamboo Culture Festival as an example, micro-data on bamboo enterprises in 1999–2015 were collected from the Chinese Industrial Enterprise Database and analyzed with a theoretical model to empirically verify the influence of the festival over the production behavior of bamboo enterprises. The research shows that the China Bamboo Culture Festival has a significant positive impact on the total output value and total factor productivity of bamboo product enterprises, which in turn affects the production behavior of the enterprises. In the host province/city, the enterprises that engaged in the festival surpassed the other enterprises by 1.0764% in terms of gross output; export enterprises were less affected by the festival than domestic market enterprises. The China Bamboo Culture Festival makes bamboo enterprises more sustainable and competitive in the industry, and the holding of festival activities enhances the sustainable development capabilities of enterprises by improving their business environment. In addition, significant differences were observed between enterprises in different geographical locations, of different ownerships, and in different subdivided industries. Enterprises in the eastern region are least affected by the China Bamboo Culture Festival, while those in the western region are the most impacted; those in the central region fall in the middle by the degree of influence. Bamboo, rattan, palm, and grass products are influenced by the China Bamboo Culture Festival, while the production of other manufacturing industries is basically unaffected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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16 pages, 5005 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Resource Quality and Human Activity Intensity Change and Spatial Autocorrelation Analysis in Yulin City, China

by Chao Song, Qiyin Yu and Kun Jin

Forests 2023, 14(10), 1929; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14101929 - 22 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1372

Abstract

With the rapid development of society and the economy, human activities are increasing, which often brings potential threats such as a decline in forest resource quality and ecological function. In order to investigate the change in forest resource quality and human activity intensity, [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of society and the economy, human activities are increasing, which often brings potential threats such as a decline in forest resource quality and ecological function. In order to investigate the change in forest resource quality and human activity intensity, this study constructed a calculation model for a forest resource quality index and a human activity intensity index and conducted a quantitative analysis of the temporal and spatial changes in forest resource quality and human activity intensity in Yulin City based on sub-compartment data in 2017 and 2020. By combining spatial autocorrelation analysis, the changes in human activity intensity and spatial forest resource quality were explored, and key areas such as the prominent contradictions between humans and the land were superimposed and coupled as potential areas of concern. The results show the following: From 2017 to 2020, the forest resource quality in Yulin City improved as a whole, especially in Zizhou County, but there were increases and decreases in other regions. Human activity intensity increased as a whole, and the most obvious increase was in Hengshan District. Both the forest resource quality and human activity intensity indexes had spatial aggregation, the differences in forest resource quality between regions were reduced, and human activity intensity showed a trend towards aggregated development. The high–high cluster area for human activity intensity showed a decreasing trend, but it expanded outward in urban areas and other human-gathering areas, such as the surrounding area of Yulin City, Jingbian County, and Shenmu City. The high–high cluster area for forest resource quality showed a shrinking trend. Four specific regions were identified through a spatial coupled superposition analysis to reveal the dynamic relationship between forest resource quality and human activity intensity. The most obvious region was the Yuyang District, where the forest resource quality improved because of a reduction in the pressure of human activities on the natural environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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21 pages, 3170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Main Determinants of National Park Community Management: Evidence from Bibliometric Analysis

by Yangyang Zhang, Ziyue Wang, Anil Shrestha, Xiang Zhou, Mingjun Teng, Pengcheng Wang and Guangyu Wang

Forests 2023, 14(9), 1850; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14091850 - 11 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2366

Abstract

The establishment of protected areas such as national parks (NPs) is a key policy in response to numerous challenges such as biodiversity loss, overexploitation of natural resources, climate change, and environmental education. Globally, the number and area of NPs have steadily increased over [...] Read more.

The establishment of protected areas such as national parks (NPs) is a key policy in response to numerous challenges such as biodiversity loss, overexploitation of natural resources, climate change, and environmental education. Globally, the number and area of NPs have steadily increased over the years, although the management models of NPs vary across different countries and regions. However, the sustainability of NPs necessitates not only effective national policy systems but also the active involvement and support of the local community and indigenous people, presenting a complex, multifaceted challenge. Although the availability of literature on community-based conservation and NPs has increased over the years, there is a lack of research analyzing trends, existing and emerging research themes, and impacts. Hence, in this study, we employed bibliometric methods to conduct a quantitative review of the scientific literature concerning community management of NPs on a global scale. By analyzing data from published articles, we identified research hotspots and trends as well as the quantity, time, and country distribution of relevant research. We developed a framework to illustrate the main research hotspot relationships relevant to NPs and community management, then summarized these findings. Based on the literature from 1989 to 2022, utilizing 2156 research papers from the Web of Science Core Collection database as the data source, visualizations were conducted using the VOSviewer software (1.6.18). Based on the results of network co-occurrence analysis, the initial focus of this field was on aspects of resource conservation. However, with the convergence of interdisciplinary approaches, attention has gradually shifted towards human societal well-being, emphasizing the “social-ecological” system. Furthermore, the current research hotspots in this field mainly revolve around issues such as “natural resources, sustainable development, stakeholder involvement, community management, sustainable tourism, and residents’ livelihoods”. Effectively addressing the interplay of interests among these research hotspot issues has become an urgent topic for current and future research efforts. This exploration necessitates finding an appropriate balance between environmental conservation, economic development, and human welfare to promote the realization of long-term goals for sustainable development in NPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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22 pages, 2674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Willingness and Influencing Factors of Farmers’ Forestland Management in Ethnic Minority Areas: Evidence from Southwest China

by Ya Li, Haiqing Chang, Yaquan Dou and Xiaodi Zhao

Forests 2023, 14(7), 1377; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14071377 - 5 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1600

Abstract

This paper uses a questionnaire and interviews from households in ethnic minority areas of the Jianchuan County (Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture) and Pingbian County (Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture) in Yunnan Province to explore the willingness of foresters to manage forests. Using [...] Read more.

This paper uses a questionnaire and interviews from households in ethnic minority areas of the Jianchuan County (Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture) and Pingbian County (Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture) in Yunnan Province to explore the willingness of foresters to manage forests. Using the Sustainable Livelihoods Analysis framework, we select three indicators including the variables of individual social economic attributes, the cognition and experience of forest landowners, and policy guidance. We use a binary logistic regression model to analyze the factors affecting the willingness of foresters to participate in forest management. Through the above analysis, we found the following: (1) Forest landowners’ willingness to engage in forest management in ethnic minority regions is relatively high, at 71.98%. (2) Variables of individual social economic attributes have the most significant degree of influence on the willingness to engage in forest management. (3) Standard of living and the woodland area have a significant positive effect on forest land management intentions, while education level, whether they are compensated by public welfare forests, and whether they have participated in the project of returning farmland to forest and grassland have a significant negative effect on management intentions. (4) There are significant differences between forest landowners’ willingness to engage in forest management and the influencing factors between minority regions and non-minority regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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23 pages, 1734 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influences of Climatic Factors and Human Activities on Forest–Shrub–Grass Suitability in the Yellow River Basin, China

by Shunli Zhang, Xiaobing Gu, Xiaodi Zhao, Junfeng Zhu and Yiru Zhao

Forests 2023, 14(6), 1198; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14061198 - 9 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1447

Abstract

Natural and human factors co-drive changes in vegetation type and distribution. In this study, we constructed an index system covering 17 natural and human activity indicators in six dimensions by using climate data, county-level human activity data, and forest–shrub–grass suitability data from 448 [...] Read more.

Natural and human factors co-drive changes in vegetation type and distribution. In this study, we constructed an index system covering 17 natural and human activity indicators in six dimensions by using climate data, county-level human activity data, and forest–shrub–grass suitability data from 448 sample counties in the Yellow River Basin of China in 2018. On this basis, we evaluated the influence of human activities and climatic factors on vegetation suitability using multiple regression and relative importance analysis methods. The multiple regression results demonstrate that climatic factors had positive effects on vegetation suitability in the Yellow River Basin, while the influence of human activities on vegetation suitability varied according to the situation. Specifically, economic factors such as per capita disposable income of urban residents and per capita disposable income of rural residents; urbanization factors such as population density, urbanization rate, and construction land area proportion; social development factors such as road density; and agricultural production factors such as the cultivated acreage proportion and the value added of the primary industries proportion all influence vegetation suitability. There is a great regional heterogeneity in the effects of human activities such as economic factors and urbanization factors on vegetation suitability. The relative importance analysis results show that the relative importance of the factors influencing vegetation suitability in the Yellow River Basin was as follows, in order of importance: climatic factors > agricultural production factors > urbanization factors > ecological projects > social development factors > economy factors; however, except for climatic factors, the importance of other influencing factors varied from region to region. This study provides a theoretical basis for optimizing vegetation adjustment schemes and forest and grass ecosystem layout according to regional characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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21 pages, 5065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Why Agree to a Forest Easement? Perception of the Residents about the Adaptation of the Conservation Easement in Qianjiangyuan National Park

by Siyuan He and Yu Wei

Forests 2023, 14(5), 872; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14050872 - 24 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1423

Abstract

Conservation easements (CEs) were introduced in the Chinese context to resolve the conflict between rural land use and area-based conservation measures. As conservation easements are usually set on private lands, little is known about their adaptation to the collective land tenure. We introduced [...] Read more.

Conservation easements (CEs) were introduced in the Chinese context to resolve the conflict between rural land use and area-based conservation measures. As conservation easements are usually set on private lands, little is known about their adaptation to the collective land tenure. We introduced a social-psychological aspect to sustainable livelihoods (SL) for an integrated decision-making mechanism to assess rural residents’ motivations for granting CEs. We surveyed farmers in the Qianjiangyuan National Park pilot area in order to explore how tangible factors, i.e., the livelihood assets, and intangible factors, i.e., farmers’ perceptions of the livelihood environment, affected their true feeling of conservation easements. Results suggested that CEs that were adapted to the collectively-owned forestland followed a well-established grassroots democracy but sacrificed the CE’s diversity in restricted uses tailored to specific landowners and properties. Institutional capital and perception of the economic environment appeared most important to affect farmers’ acceptance of CEs. Furthermore, the livelihood assets affected farmers’ perception of the livelihood environment, and their acceptance of CEs affected the perception of policy outcomes. Overall, our findings demonstrate the acceptance of conservation easements as a livelihood strategic choice and strengthen the importance of securing economic rights in the changing institutional environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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24 pages, 1968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Has the Development of the Non-Timber Forest Products Industry Achieved Poverty Alleviation? Evidence from Lower-Income Forest Areas in Yunnan Province

by Yaquan Dou, Jian Wu, Ya Li, Xingliang Chen and Xiaodi Zhao

Forests 2023, 14(4), 776; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14040776 - 10 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2839

Abstract

Considering the notion that “lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets”, the effective exploitation of the economic value of forest resources is an important research topic, especially in forest-rich areas. The development of the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) industry has promoted both [...] Read more.

Considering the notion that “lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets”, the effective exploitation of the economic value of forest resources is an important research topic, especially in forest-rich areas. The development of the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) industry has promoted both ecological and economic benefits and has effectively improved farmers’ incomes while protecting forest resources. In order to evaluate the effects of the NTFPs industry on sustaining farmers’ livelihoods and protecting ecological environments, we constructed a performance evaluation index system to determine the poverty alleviation performance of the NTFPs industry in Yunnan Province using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), which covered three aspects: the achievement of poverty alleviation, the sustainability of poverty alleviation and satisfaction with poverty alleviation. Then, we selected Sanhe Village in Nujiang Prefecture, Yunnan Province, as an example to verify and rationalize the evaluation index system and comprehensively evaluate the poverty alleviation performance of the NTFPs industry. Based on data from questionnaires and field interviews, we found the following: (1) the overall poverty alleviation performance of the NTFPs industry in Sanhe Village was 79.33, which indicated that the effect was good; (2) the scores for the achievement of poverty alleviation, the sustainability of poverty alleviation and satisfaction with poverty alleviation were 50.56, 18.57 and 10.2, respectively; (3) there were some problems with the poverty alleviation performance of the NTFPs industry, such as limited capital investments, the weak roles of cooperatives and enterprises, the low enthusiasm of lower-income households and incomplete poverty alleviation projects. Finally, we devised some suggestions that could improve the poverty alleviation performance of the NTFPs industry. This paper presents the performance evaluation index system for the poverty alleviation performance of the NTFPs industry, which could provide a reference for evaluating the developmental effects of the NTFPs industry in other lower-income forest areas. Through our empirical analysis of the development effects of the NTFPs industry on farmers’ livelihoods and ecological environments in Sanhe Village, we found that the development of the NTFPs industry significantly improved the farmers’ livelihoods and ecological environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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18 pages, 1241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Did the Comprehensive Commercial Logging Ban Policy Affect the Life Satisfaction of Residents in National Forest Areas? A Case Study in Northeast China and Inner Mongolia

by Yapei Liu, Rong Zhao and Shaozhi Chen

Forests 2023, 14(4), 686; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14040686 - 27 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2232

Abstract

To protect the forest ecological environment, China implemented the Comprehensive Commercial Logging Ban Policy (CCLBP), yet it has a major impact on forest residents. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the CCLBP from the perspective of the satisfaction of residents. In this study, [...] Read more.

To protect the forest ecological environment, China implemented the Comprehensive Commercial Logging Ban Policy (CCLBP), yet it has a major impact on forest residents. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the CCLBP from the perspective of the satisfaction of residents. In this study, we used 242 questionnaires from residents in national forest areas in Northeast China and Inner Mongolia to evaluate satisfaction and its influencing factors by factor analysis combined with the entropy method and multiple linear regression, respectively. The results show that: (1) the overall policy satisfaction of residents in national forest areas is 60.9, which is lower than the theoretical neutral value of policy satisfaction. Increasing employment opportunities, transferring surplus employees and developing forest economy are important to improve the satisfaction of residents. (2) Life satisfaction was higher in the high-income group than in the low-income group. Increasing wage income can improve the satisfaction of residents in national forest areas. (3) The satisfaction of the worker group was significantly higher than that of the forest farmer group. Improving job stability and policy equity are important to promote life satisfaction of residents in national forest areas. (4) The satisfaction of the Yichun Forest Industry Group was significantly higher than the Inner Mongolia Forest Group. Natural resource endowment and adaptability to the CCLBP are the main factors affecting the satisfaction of different forest industry groups. At the same time, focusing on the institutional supply of external support policies in order to provide them access to information, employment advice and other services is very significant. This research provides a new approach to studying the CCLBP, which is of great practical significance for raising the wellbeing index of national forest areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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16 pages, 2549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Human Social-Economic Activities on Vegetation Suitability in the Yellow River Basin, China

by Qingjun Wu, Junfeng Zhu and Xiaodi Zhao

Forests 2023, 14(2), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020234 - 27 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3516

Abstract

Vegetation suitability assessment is the premise of scientific vegetation restoration and identifying its effect factors is conducive to imposing more targeted measures. In this paper, we take 24 social-economic factors that may affect vegetation suitability as indicators and construct the three criterion layers [...] Read more.

Vegetation suitability assessment is the premise of scientific vegetation restoration and identifying its effect factors is conducive to imposing more targeted measures. In this paper, we take 24 social-economic factors that may affect vegetation suitability as indicators and construct the three criterion layers of production, life and policy. Then, we use cross-sectional data of 448 counties in the Yellow River Basin during 2018 to analyze how the social-economic factors influence the vegetation suitability. The results show that human activity factors affecting vegetation suitability vary a lot for counties in different reaches of the Yellow River. To be specific, overirrigation and overfertilization have negative influences on vegetation suitability in upstream counties. In the middle reaches, development of the secondary industry and urbanization have the most significant negative effects on vegetation suitability. When it comes to the lower reaches, economic advance contributes to the vegetation suitability, but an excessive population density counteracts this positive effect. We also find that the implementation of major ecological projects has played a positive role in improving vegetation suitability in the last few years, and the more targeted the policies are, the more significant their effects will be. In summary, there is no doubt that overfrequent human activities can interfere with the vegetation suitability. At the end of this article, we put forward some pertinent suggestions on how to better play the subjective initiative of human activities to improve the suitability of vegetation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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46 pages, 5413 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Nature-Based Tourism in National and Natural Parks in Europe: A Systematic Review

by Delia S. Donici and Diana E. Dumitras

Forests 2024, 15(4), 588; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15040588 - 24 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3038

Abstract

Considered among the fastest-growing industries in the world, tourism brings immense benefits but also creates certain challenges. Conservation of natural resources is a stringent necessity, without which the extraordinary ecosystems’ attributes that create the premises for nature-based tourism would reduce, alter, and subsequently [...] Read more.

Considered among the fastest-growing industries in the world, tourism brings immense benefits but also creates certain challenges. Conservation of natural resources is a stringent necessity, without which the extraordinary ecosystems’ attributes that create the premises for nature-based tourism would reduce, alter, and subsequently disappear. The aim of the present review is twofold: gaining a general understanding of what nature-based tourism is and providing a systematic literature review of articles on nature-based tourism in European national and natural parks, with emphasis on their applicability. The articles included in the present review were selected based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. The review accounts for research conducted between 2000 and 2021 and is divided into two sections: articles aimed at understanding tourists’ behaviour and articles that are focused on other stakeholders or have the local communities in the foreground. While many studies are aimed at understanding tourists’ behaviour as a means of improving parks’ management, participatory strategies including local communities are often indicated as beneficial. The results of this paper can facilitate future research in the field and provide valuable knowledge to policymakers and any interested parties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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16 pages, 1286 KiB

Open AccessEssay

The Impact of Grassroots Forestry Institutions on Forest Carbon Sequestration: Evidence from China’s Collective Forests

by Shuqiang Li, Li Gao, Khan Hassan Saif and Hua Li

Forests 2023, 14(3), 643; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030643 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1533

Abstract

Many countries have established grassroots forestry institutions to manage and protect small-scale forestry resources and provide technology and services to private foresters. Since the inception of township forestry workstations (TFWs) in China almost 70 years ago, TFW has supported resource protection and forest [...] Read more.

Many countries have established grassroots forestry institutions to manage and protect small-scale forestry resources and provide technology and services to private foresters. Since the inception of township forestry workstations (TFWs) in China almost 70 years ago, TFW has supported resource protection and forest property reform. In this paper, we employ fixed effect models to test the effects of TFW on collective forest carbon density and provide evidence for improving the quality of collective forests. Our results demonstrate that TFWs in China improve the carbon density of collective forests by performing forestry management and service functions. However, significant differences in TFWs exist under different management systems, and the dual leadership township forestry workstation (D_TWF) is more effective in increasing the carbon density of collective forests. The management system’s heterogeneity directly affects its performance, with D_TWF performing better management functions and the single leadership township forestry workstation (S_TWF) performing better service functions. These results underscore the importance of reforming the TFW management system in accordance with local conditions. In areas with abundant forest resources, the TFW’s management system should shift to single leadership (jurisdictional or vertical management). In forest resource-scarce regions, the TFW’s management system should change to dual leadership. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changes in the Value of Forest Resources: Impacts of Human Activities)

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