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5 pages, 640 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Wood Anatomy: Cutting-Edge Techniques for Identifying Wood and Analyzing Its Structural Modifications

by Angela Balzano, Maks Merela and Veronica de Micco

Forests 2024, 15(10), 1802; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15101802 - 14 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1086

Abstract

Wood, a natural lignocellulosic polymer, plays several important roles in trees, including water conduction, structural support, and nutrient storage [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Anatomy and Evaluation of Wood Structures and Their Modifications)

Research

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15 pages, 5039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Influencing Factors of Convolutional Neural Network Models for Classifying Certain Softwood Species

by Jong-Ho Kim, Byantara Darsan Purusatama, Alvin Muhammad Savero, Denni Prasetia, Go-Un Yang, Song-Yi Han, Seung-Hwan Lee and Nam-Hun Kim

Forests 2023, 14(6), 1249; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14061249 - 15 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1642

Abstract

This study aims to verify the wood classification performance of convolutional neural networks (CNNs), such as VGG16, ResNet50, GoogLeNet, and basic CNN architectures, and to investigate the factors affecting classification performance. A dataset from 10 softwood species consisted of 200 cross-sectional micrographs each [...] Read more.

This study aims to verify the wood classification performance of convolutional neural networks (CNNs), such as VGG16, ResNet50, GoogLeNet, and basic CNN architectures, and to investigate the factors affecting classification performance. A dataset from 10 softwood species consisted of 200 cross-sectional micrographs each from the total part, earlywood, and latewood of each species. We used 80% and 20% of each dataset for training and testing, respectively. To improve the performance of the architectures, the dataset was augmented, and the differences in classification performance before and after augmentation were compared. The four architectures showed a high classification accuracy of over 90% between species, and the accuracy increased with increasing epochs. However, the starting points of the accuracy, loss, and training speed increments differed according to the architecture. The latewood dataset showed the highest accuracy. The epochs and augmented datasets also positively affected accuracy, whereas the total part and non-augmented datasets had a negative effect on accuracy. Additionally, the augmented dataset tended to derive stable results and reached a convergence point earlier. In the present study, an augmented latewood dataset was the most important factor affecting classification performance and should be used for training CNNs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Anatomy and Evaluation of Wood Structures and Their Modifications)

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14 pages, 1628 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Variations in Tracheid Length of Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco Wood in Relation to Cambium Age, Site, and Growth

by Iva Ištok, Tomislav Sedlar, Gordana Orešković and Branimir Jambreković

Forests 2023, 14(6), 1165; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14061165 - 5 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1324

Abstract

This study investigated the variations in tracheid length of Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco from three sites in Croatia in relation to cambium age, within- and between-site differences, and growth rate. Tracheids are the main structural element in P. menziesii wood, varying in length [...] Read more.

This study investigated the variations in tracheid length of Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco from three sites in Croatia in relation to cambium age, within- and between-site differences, and growth rate. Tracheids are the main structural element in P. menziesii wood, varying in length following different patterns that should be precisely determined. After the maceration procedure, earlywood tracheid length (EWTL), latewood tracheid length (LWTL), annual growth ring tracheid length (RTL), earlywood ring width (EWW), latewood ring width (LWW), and annual ring width (ARW) were measured in selected annual growth rings. The significant effect of annual growth rings and zone interaction for EWTL and LWTL, as well as of annual growth rings, trees, and sites for RTL, was determined. The results conclude on the differences between the trends in EWTL and LWTL from pith toward the bark. In addition, the correlation analysis between the tracheid length and different growth patterns was investigated, and very weak or no association between the variables was detected. This research contributes to better understanding the degree of wood uniformity of P. menziesii from the technological perspective, as well as the variability factor in the optimization of forest management with favoring overall wood quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Anatomy and Evaluation of Wood Structures and Their Modifications)

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16 pages, 6584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Variation Patterns in Xylem Vessels and Parenchyma Cells and Their Association with Tree Evolution

by Linghui He, Yunlin Fu, Zhigao Liu and Penglian Wei

Forests 2023, 14(5), 950; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14050950 - 4 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2485

Abstract

Xylem vessels and parenchyma cells perform functions such as water transport and nutrient storage in trees. However, they are highly variable in different trees. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the structural change patterns in vessels and parenchyma cells in the sapwood, transition [...] Read more.

Xylem vessels and parenchyma cells perform functions such as water transport and nutrient storage in trees. However, they are highly variable in different trees. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the structural change patterns in vessels and parenchyma cells in the sapwood, transition wood, and heartwood of tree species with different degrees of evolution. The structural characteristics of the two types of cells in the sapwood, transitional wood, and heartwood were measured in six species with different levels of evolution, namely, Michelia macclurei Dandy, Cinnamomum camphora (L.) presl, Erythrophleum fordii Oliv, Melaleuca leucadendron L., Parashorea chinensis Wang Hsie and Tectona grandis L.F. The results showed that the more evolved species had larger earlywood vessel lumen diameters, thicker walls, and wider hydraulic diameters, as well as smaller latewood vessel densities, reflecting better water transport effectiveness and higher safety. From the sapwood to the transition wood and heartwood, the earlywood vessel lumen diameter of the more primitive species tended to be stable and then decrease, while that of the more evolved species gradually decreased. The latewood vessel density of the more primitive species tended to be stable and then increase, while that of the more evolved species tended to be stable. Additionally, the starch grains of the more primitive species were mainly distributed in the axial or ray parenchyma cells of the sapwood, while those of the more evolved species were abundantly distributed in the axial and ray parenchyma cells of the sapwood, and the distribution of the starch grains was reduced in the transition wood and heartwood. From the sapwood to the heartwood, the ray parenchyma cell fraction tended to be stable in the more primitive species, and tended to be stable before decreasing in the more evolved species. The pit density in the horizontal wall of the ray parenchyma cells tended to be stable and decrease in the more primitive species, while in the more evolved species it tended to be stable or decrease before stabilizing. Overall, trees’ vessels have gradually undergone the optimal selection of vessels during evolution, and the structural variation in the parenchyma cells contributes to their nutrient storage and transport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Anatomy and Evaluation of Wood Structures and Their Modifications)

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13 pages, 15745 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Organ and Leaf Habit on the Secondary Xylem Anatomy Variation across 15 Species from Brazilian Cerrado

by Rafaella Dutra, Anselmo Nogueira, Sergio Rossi, Larissa Chacon Dória, Valentina Buttò and Carmen Regina Marcati

Forests 2023, 14(2), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020269 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2054

Abstract

Xylem is a complex tissue connecting the organs of plants and it performs multiple functions, including water transport, mechanical support, and storage. Because of the interaction between structure and function, xylem anatomy can provide useful information about its role in plant strategies. However, [...] Read more.

Xylem is a complex tissue connecting the organs of plants and it performs multiple functions, including water transport, mechanical support, and storage. Because of the interaction between structure and function, xylem anatomy can provide useful information about its role in plant strategies. However, knowledge of how xylem anatomical traits change across organs and species functional groups is still limited. Here, we tested the role of different plant organs (stem and roots) and leaf habits (deciduous, semi-deciduous, and evergreen) on xylem anatomy variation across 15 woody species from the Brazilian Cerrado. Vessels, fibers, and parenchyma traits were measured on 45 individuals sampled in 2014 in Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil. Our results revealed a higher parenchyma fraction and less fiber fraction in roots than in stems across species. Differences in wood anatomical traits between organs were mainly species-specific in parenchyma traits rather than vessel and fiber traits. Across leaf habits, only the root ray fraction was higher in evergreen species compared to deciduous species. These findings highlight a potential role of organs and leaf habits in xylem storage across Cerrado woody species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Anatomy and Evaluation of Wood Structures and Their Modifications)

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14 pages, 11162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Tracheid Structure Characteristics and Lignin Distribution of Taxodium Hybrid Zhongshanshan to External Stress

by Lu Yong, Yujin Bi, Jiangtao Shi, Xinzhou Wang and Biao Pan

Forests 2022, 13(11), 1792; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13111792 - 28 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2003

Abstract

The Taxodium hybrid Zhongshanshan fast-growing species is susceptible to environment and gravity to form reaction wood. In this study, individual growth rings of reaction wood are used as subjects, and an individual growth ring is divided into three zones: compression zone (CZ), lateral [...] Read more.

The Taxodium hybrid Zhongshanshan fast-growing species is susceptible to environment and gravity to form reaction wood. In this study, individual growth rings of reaction wood are used as subjects, and an individual growth ring is divided into three zones: compression zone (CZ), lateral zone (LZ), and opposite zone (OZ). The microanatomical structure and chemical properties of the tracheids in CZ, LZ, and OZ forms by the inclined or bent growth of T. Zhongshanshan are comparatively analyzed by using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscope, laser confocal microscopy, and Raman imaging techniques. In CZ, the length and diameter of compression wood (CW) tracheids decreased, and the shape of cross-sections became rounded as compared to the OZ and LZ tracheids. More notably, threaded fissures appeared on the cell wall of tracheids, and the thickness of the cell wall increased in CW. The analysis of tracheids’ cell wall structure showed that CW tracheids had a complete outer secondary wall middle (S2L) layer, but had no secondary wall inner (S3) layer. In the transition zone (TA) between CW and normal early wood, tracheids were divided into compressed and normal tracheids. Despite the compressed tracheids having a similar cell morphology to normal tracheids, they had a thin secondary wall S2L layer. Tracheids in LZ had a thin S2L layer only at the angle of the cell. No S2L layer was seen in the cell wall of OZ and CZ late wood tracheids. It can be concluded that the response of lignin deposition location to external stress was faster than the change in cell morphology. The above results help provide the theoretical basis for the response mechanism of T. Zhongshanshan reaction wood anatomical structures to the external environment and has important theoretical value for understanding its characteristics and its rational and efficient usage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Anatomy and Evaluation of Wood Structures and Their Modifications)

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11 pages, 4610 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study on the Anatomical Characteristics of Acacia mangium and Acacia hybrid Grown in Vietnam

by Alvin Muhammad Savero, Jong-Ho Kim, Byantara Darsan Purusatama, Denni Prasetia, Se-Hwi Park and Nam-Hun Kim

Forests 2022, 13(10), 1700; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101700 - 16 Oct 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2842

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate and compare the qualitative and quantitative anatomical characteristics of Acacia mangium and Acacia hybrid in plantation forests in Vietnam. The qualitative and quantitative anatomical characteristics were evaluated according to the International Association of Wood Anatomists list of microscopic [...] Read more.

This study aimed to investigate and compare the qualitative and quantitative anatomical characteristics of Acacia mangium and Acacia hybrid in plantation forests in Vietnam. The qualitative and quantitative anatomical characteristics were evaluated according to the International Association of Wood Anatomists list of microscopic features for hardwood identification. In terms of qualitative features, A. mangium had a rough, hard, and fissured bark surface with a golden brown to dark brown color, whereas A. hybrid had a smooth and slightly scaly bark surface with greenish brown to greyish brown color, and yellowish white to pale white spots. Moreover, the heartwood–sapwood color and microscopic features of both species were identical. In terms of quantitative features, A. mangium had higher values in the tangential diameter of vessel lumina, vessel per square millimeter, ray number per millimeter, fiber length, and fiber wall thickness than A. hybrid, whereas A. hybrid had a higher ray height and lumen diameter than A. mangium. Thus, it is suggested that bark morphology and some quantitative anatomical characteristics can be used for identification and evaluation of wood quality between A. mangium and A. hybrid growing in Vietnam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Anatomy and Evaluation of Wood Structures and Their Modifications)

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18 pages, 4847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved Wood Recognition Method Based on the One-Class Algorithm

by Jie He, Yongke Sun, Chunjiang Yu, Yong Cao, Youjie Zhao and Guanben Du

Forests 2022, 13(9), 1350; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13091350 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2050

Abstract

Wood recognition is necessary for work in the wood trade activities. The advantage of the one-class wood classification method is more generalization, and it only needs positive samples and does not need negative samples in the training phase, so it is suitable for [...] Read more.

Wood recognition is necessary for work in the wood trade activities. The advantage of the one-class wood classification method is more generalization, and it only needs positive samples and does not need negative samples in the training phase, so it is suitable for rare wood species inspection. This paper proposed an improved method based on the one-class support vector machine (OCSVM) for wood species recognition. It uses cross-section images acquired with a magnifying glass, which uses a pre-trained VGG16 model for feature extraction, a normal distribution test for key features filtering, and OCSVM to determine the wood species. The results showed that the approach achieved a mean recall of 0.842 for both positive and negative samples, which indicates this method has good performance for wood recognition. In a negative public dataset, the negative recall reached as high as 0.989, which showed that this method has good generalization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Anatomy and Evaluation of Wood Structures and Their Modifications)

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