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Carbon Cycling in Mangrove Ecosystems

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A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Ecology and Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 September 2021) | Viewed by 37922

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Prof. Dr. Toshiyuki Ohtsuka

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Guest Editor

River Basin Research Center, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu City, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
Interests: carbon cycle; net ecosystem production

Prof. Dr. Nobuhide Fujitake

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Guest Editor

Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
Interests: soil organic chemistry; humic substance; mangrove

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mangroves have been recognized as the most carbon (C)-rich ecosystem in the world (Donate et al. 2011). Global potential CO₂ emissions from mangrove loss were estimated to be ~7.0 Tg CO₂ yr^-1, and thus, mangrove conservation may be one low-cost means of reducing CO₂ emission (Atwood et al. 2017). The ability of huge carbon sequestration should result from a highly productive ecosystem with low heterotrophic respiration under submerged anerobic soil; i.e., mangroves have high net ecosystem production (NEP) compared to upland forests (Alongi 2009, Poungparn et al. 2012). On the other hand, traditional “outwelling hypothesis” has suggested that a large fraction of the organic matter produced by mangrove trees is exported to the coastal ocean (Odum and Heald 1975, Adame and Lovelock 2011). Moreover, recent studies supported that most of the carbon being tidally exported from mangrove is dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC)—a result of organic matter mineralization as a part of heterotrophic respiration. Therefore, the previous studies of mangrove NEP might have greatly overestimated its effects, and more empirical work on carbon process is needed on where and how mangrove forests sequester C. Moreover, mangroves in different environments may produce and store C in different ways (Li et al. 2018), and thus, the accumulation of local studies including various types of mangrove is very important. We encourage studies of carbon cycling in mangroves from all aspects, including forest structure and biomass, underground C dynamics (e.g., soil organic C, fine root production), forest production and heterotrophic respiration in mangroves, lateral C flux with tide, conservation of mangroves to contribute to this Special Issue in order to promote knowledge of carbon cycling in mangroves and adaptation strategies for the preservation, and management of mangrove ecosystems.

Prof. Dr. Toshiyuki Ohtsuka
Prof. Dr. Nobuhide Fujitake
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Carbon cycling
Net ecosystem production
Carbon sequestration
Soil organic matter
Dissolved organic and inorganic carbon
Net primary production
Heterotrophic respiration
Lateral exchange of carbon

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 2332 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Shrimp Ponds on Mangrove Blue Carbon Stocks in Ecuador

by Jéssica Merecí-Guamán, Fernando Casanoves, Diego Delgado-Rodríguez, Pablo Ochoa and Miguel Cifuentes-Jara

Forests 2021, 12(7), 816; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12070816 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4376

Abstract

Mangrove forests play an important role in mitigating climate change but are threatened by aquaculture expansion. The inclusion of mangroves in climate change mitigation strategies requires measuring of carbon stocks and the emissions caused by land use change over time. This study provides a synthesis of carbon stocks in mangrove and shrimp ponds in the Gulf of Guayaquil. In this study area, we identified 134,064 ha of mangrove forest and 153,950 ha of shrimp farms. Two mangrove strata were identified according to their height and basal area: medium-statured mangrove (lower height and basal area) and tall mangrove (greater height and basal area). These strata showed statistical differences in aboveground carbon stocks. In both strata, the most abundant mangrove species was Rhizophora mangle. For both strata, trees had a maximum height (>30 m), and their density was greater than 827 ha⁻¹. Total ecosystem level carbon stocks (measured to 1 m soil depth) were 320.9 Mg C ha⁻¹ in medium-statured mangroves and 419.4 Mg C ha⁻¹ in tall mangroves. The differences are attributable to higher basal area, soil organic carbon concentrations and salinity, tidal range, origin of allochthonous material, and herbivory patterns. Mangrove soils represented >80% of the total ecosystem carbon. Ecosystem carbon stocks were lower (81.9 Mg C ha⁻¹) in the shrimp farms, 50% less than in undisturbed mangroves. Our results highlight mangroves as tropical ecosystems with extremely high carbon storage; therefore, they play an important role in mitigating climate change. This research provides a better understanding of how carbon stocks in this gulf are found and can be used for design strategies to protect global natural carbon sinks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Cycling in Mangrove Ecosystems)

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14 pages, 3901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Pneumatophore Density on Methane Emissions in Mangroves

by Chiao-Wen Lin, Yu-Chen Kao, Wei-Jen Lin, Chuan-Wen Ho and Hsing-Juh Lin

Forests 2021, 12(3), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12030314 - 8 Mar 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3082

Abstract

Mangroves play an important role in carbon sequestration. However, mangroves can be sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this study, methane (CH₄) emissions and related soil properties were determined in multiple mangroves in Taiwan, including Kandelia obovata and Avicennia marina mangroves. K. obovata possess prop roots, whereas pneumatophores are found in A. marina. Our results showed that mangrove soils were significant sources of CH₄ emissions, which should be accounted for in mangrove carbon budgets. In particular, CH₄ emissions in the A. marina mangroves were approximately 50- to 100-fold those of the K. obovata mangroves and the adjoining mudflats. Multiple regression analyses indicated that the soil salinity and pH in K. obovata mangroves and the soil redox potential and organic content in the mudflats were the key factors affecting CH₄ emissions. However, the pneumatophore density alone explained approximately 48% of the variation in CH₄ emissions in the A. marina mangroves. More pneumatophores resulted in higher CH₄ emissions in the A. marina mangroves. Thus, compared with the assessed soil properties, the contribution of pneumatophores to the transportation of CH₄ from soil was more significant. In addition to soil properties, our results demonstrated that the root structure may also affect GHG emissions from mangroves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Cycling in Mangrove Ecosystems)

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15 pages, 3126 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lateral Export of Dissolved Inorganic and Organic Carbon from a Small Mangrove Estuary with Tidal Fluctuation

by Toshiyuki Ohtsuka, Takeo Onishi, Shinpei Yoshitake, Mitsutoshi Tomotsune, Morimaru Kida, Yasuo Iimura, Miyuki Kondo, Vilanee Suchewaboripont, Ruoming Cao, Kazutoshi Kinjo and Nobuhide Fujitake

Forests 2020, 11(10), 1041; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101041 - 25 Sep 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3521

Abstract

The significance of aquatic lateral carbon (C) export in mangrove ecosystems highlights the extensive contribution of aquatic pathways to the net ecosystem carbon budget. However, few studies have investigated lateral fluxes of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and inorganic carbon (DIC), partly due to methodological difficulty. Therefore, we evaluated area-based lateral C fluxes in a small mangrove estuary that only had one exit for water exchange to the coast. We sampled water from the mouth of the creek and integrated discharge and consecutive concentration of mangrove-derived C (ΔC). Then, we estimated the area-normalized C fluxes based on the inundated mangrove area. DIC and DOC concentrations at the river mouth increased during ebb tide during both summer and winter. We quantified the ΔC in the estuary using a two-component conservative mixing model of freshwater and seawater. DIC and DOC proportions of ΔC concentrations at the river mouth during ebb tide was between 34% and 56% in the winter and 26% and 42% in the summer, respectively. DIC and DOC fluxes from the estuary were estimated to be 1.36 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ and 0.20 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ in the winter and 3.35 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ and 0.86 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ in the summer, respectively. Based on our method, daily fluxes are mangrove area-based DIC and DOC lateral exports that can be directly incorporated into the mangrove carbon budget. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Cycling in Mangrove Ecosystems)

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17 pages, 2651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ten-Year Estimation of Net Primary Productivity in a Mangrove Forest under a Tropical Monsoon Climate in Eastern Thailand: Significance of the Temperature Environment in the Dry Season

by Sasitorn Poungparn, Akira Komiyama, Suthathip Umnouysin, Chadtip Rodtassana, Tanuwong Sangtiean, Chatree Maknual, Tamanai Pravinvongvuthi, Vilanee Suchewaboripont and Shogo Kato

Forests 2020, 11(9), 987; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11090987 - 15 Sep 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3986

Abstract

Mangrove forests play crucial roles in the coastal ecosystems of the tropics. Few studies have addressed long-term changes in the net primary productivity (NPP) of mangroves in relation to the tropical monsoon climate. We conducted a tree census from 2008 to 2018 in a permanent plot at a secondary mangrove forest under the tropical monsoon climate of Eastern Thailand. During this period, the mortality of fast-growing species and the increasing number of newly recruited trees revealed a temporal change in the plant composition and distribution. Total tree biomass linearly increased from 283.64 to 381.72 t·ha⁻¹ during the study period. The NPP was calculated by using the summation method, which included fine root production. The NPP ranged from 21.19 to 29.04 t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹. The fluctuation in NPP and its components were analyzed in relation to climatic factors by the linear regression model. The NPP did not relate with the annual climatic factors, such as the mean temperature and annual rainfall. However, both increments in the basal area and living tree biomass, which is a major component of NPP, were negatively related with the maximum and mean monthly temperatures in the dry season. The annual mortality rate related positively with annual rainfall and the maximum monthly temperature in the dry season. Linear regression analyses showed that some major components of NPP were chiefly affected by the temperature environment in the dry season. These results indicated that the weather in the dry season was largely restricting the mangrove NPP due to effects on the saline water dynamics of the soils under the tropical monsoon climate, which were revealed by our recent study. It implies that the hot-dry season may lead to high mortality, long-term reduction in the increment of living-trees biomass, and thus lowered the ability to maintain high NPP of mangrove forests over the long-term. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Cycling in Mangrove Ecosystems)

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10 pages, 1664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of Soil Carbon Stocks of Intact and Restored Mangrove Forests in Northern Vietnam

by Pham Hong Tinh, Nguyen Thi Hong Hanh, Vo Van Thanh, Mai Sy Tuan, Pham Van Quang, Sahadev Sharma and Richard A. MacKenzie

Forests 2020, 11(6), 660; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11060660 - 10 Jun 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4905

Abstract

Background and Objectives: In northern Vietnam, nearly 37,100 hectares of mangroves were lost from 1964–1997 due to unsustainable harvest and deforestation for the creation of shrimp aquaculture ponds. To offset these losses, efforts in the late 1990s have resulted in thousands of hectares of mangroves being restored, but few studies to date have examined how effective these efforts are at creating restored mangrove forests that function similarly to the intact mangroves they are intended to replace. Materials and Methods: We quantified and compared soil carbon (C) stocks among restored (mono and mixed species) and intact mangrove forests in the provinces of Quang Ninh, Thai Binh, Nam Dinh and Thanh Hoa in northern Vietnam. A total of 96 soil cores up to a depth of 200 cm were collected every 25 m (25, 50, 75, 100, 125, and 150 m) along 16 linear transects that were 150 m long and perpendicular to the mangrove upland interface (six cores along each transect) at Quang Ninh (four transects), Thai Binh (five), Nam Dinh (four) and Thanh Hoa (three). Five-cm-long soil samples were then collected from the 0–15 cm, 15–30 cm, 30–50 cm, 50–100 cm, and >100 cm depth intervals of each soil core. Results: The study confirmed that the soil C stock of 20–25-year-old restored mangrove forest (217.74 ± 16.82 Mg/ha) was not significantly different from that of intact mangrove forest (300.68 ± 51.61 Mg/ha) (p > 0.05). Soil C stocks of Quang Ninh (323.89 ± 28.43 Mg/ha) were not significantly different from Nam Dinh (249.81 ± 19.09 Mg/ha), but both of those were significantly larger than Thai Binh (201.42 ± 27.65 Mg/ha) and Thanh Hoa (178.98 ± 30.82 Mg/ha) (p < 0.05). Soil C stock differences among provinces could be due to their different geomorphological characteristics and mangrove age. Soil C stocks did not differ among mangroves that were restored with mixed mangrove species (289.75 ± 33.28 Mg/ha), Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. (255.67 ± 13.11 Mg/ha) or Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco (278.15 ± 43.86 Mg/ha), but soil C stocks of those mangroves were significantly greater than that of Kandelia obovata Sheue, Liu & Yong (174.04 ± 20.38 Mg/ha) (p < 0.05). Conclusion: There were significant differences in the soil C stocks of mangrove forests among species and provinces in northern Vietnam. The soil C stock of 20–25-year-old restored mangrove forest was not significantly different from that of intact mangrove forest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Cycling in Mangrove Ecosystems)

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15 pages, 958 KiB

Open AccessReview

Organic Carbon Stabilization Mechanisms in Mangrove Soils: A Review

by Morimaru Kida and Nobuhide Fujitake

Forests 2020, 11(9), 981; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11090981 - 11 Sep 2020

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 7629

Abstract

Despite the recognized organic carbon (OC) sequestration potential of mangrove forests, the ongoing climate change and anthropogenic disturbances pose a great threat to these ecosystems. However, we currently lack the ability to mechanically understand and predict the consequences of such impacts, primarily because mechanisms underlying OC stabilization in these ecosystems remain elusive. Research into OC stabilization has focused on terrestrial soils and marine sediments for decades, overlooking the vegetated coastal ecosystems including mangroves. In terrestrial soils and marine sediments, it is widely accepted that OC stabilization is the integrated consequence of OM’s inherent recalcitrance, physical protection, and interactions with minerals and metals. However, related discussion is rarely done in mangrove soils, and recalcitrance of roots and high net ecosystem production (high primary production and low heterotrophic respiration) have been considered as a primary OC sequestration mechanism in mangrove peat and mineral soils, respectively. This review presents the available information on the mechanisms underlying OC stabilization in mangrove soils and highlights research questions that warrant further investigation. Primary OC stabilization mechanisms differ between mangrove peat and mineral soils. In mangrove mineral soils, physico-chemical stabilization processes are important, yet grossly understudied OC stabilization mechanisms. In mangrove peat, recalcitrance of mangrove roots and the inhibition of phenoloxidase under the anoxic condition may be the primary OC stabilization mechanisms. Salinity-induced OC immobilization likely plays a role in both type of soils. Finally, this review argues that belowground production and allochthonous inputs in mangrove forests are likely underestimated. More studies are needed to constrain C budgets to explain the enigma that mangrove OC keeps accumulating despite much higher decomposition (especially by large lateral exports) than previously considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Cycling in Mangrove Ecosystems)

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17 pages, 2276 KiB

Open AccessReview

Carbon Cycling in the World’s Mangrove Ecosystems Revisited: Significance of Non-Steady State Diagenesis and Subsurface Linkages between the Forest Floor and the Coastal Ocean

by Daniel M. Alongi

Forests 2020, 11(9), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11090977 - 10 Sep 2020

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 8860

Abstract

Carbon cycling within the deep mangrove forest floor is unique compared to other marine ecosystems with organic carbon input, mineralization, burial, and advective and groundwater export pathways being in non-steady-state, often oscillating in synchrony with tides, plant uptake, and release/uptake via roots and other edaphic factors in a highly dynamic and harsh environment. Rates of soil organic carbon (C_ORG) mineralization and belowground C_ORG stocks are high, with rapid diagenesis throughout the deep (>1 m) soil horizon. Pocketed with cracks, fissures, extensive roots, burrows, tubes, and drainage channels through which tidal waters percolate and drain, the forest floor sustains non-steady-state diagenesis of the soil C_ORG, in which decomposition processes at the soil surface are distinct from those in deeper soils. Aerobic respiration occurs within the upper 2 mm of the soil surface and within biogenic structures. On average, carbon respiration across the surface soil-air/water interface (104 mmol C m⁻² d⁻¹) equates to only 25% of the total carbon mineralized within the entire soil horizon, as nearly all respired carbon (569 mmol C m⁻² d⁻¹) is released in a dissolved form via advective porewater exchange and/or lateral transport and subsurface tidal pumping to adjacent tidal waters. A carbon budget for the world’s mangrove ecosystems indicates that subsurface respiration is the second-largest respiratory flux after canopy respiration. Dissolved carbon release is sufficient to oversaturate water-column pCO_2, causing tropical coastal waters to be a source of CO₂ to the atmosphere. Mangrove dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) discharge contributes nearly 60% of DIC and 27% of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) discharge from the world’s low latitude rivers to the tropical coastal ocean. Mangroves inhabit only 0.3% of the global coastal ocean area but contribute 55% of air-sea exchange, 14% of C_ORG burial, 28% of DIC export, and 13% of DOC + particulate organic matter (POC) export from the world’s coastal wetlands and estuaries to the atmosphere and global coastal ocean. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Cycling in Mangrove Ecosystems)

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