Forests

2024

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12 pages, 2055 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Patterns in Forest Soil CO₂ Flux in a Pacific Northwest Temperate Rainforest

by Dylan G. Fischer, Zoe R. Chamberlain, Claire E. Cook, Randall Adam Martin and Liam O. Mueller

Forests 2024, 15(1), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15010161 - 12 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1137

Abstract

Soil CO₂ efflux (F_s) plays an important role in forest carbon cycling yet estimates of F_s can remain unconstrained in many systems due to the difficulty in measuring F_s over long time scales in natural systems. It is [...] Read more.

Soil CO₂ efflux (F_s) plays an important role in forest carbon cycling yet estimates of F_s can remain unconstrained in many systems due to the difficulty in measuring F_s over long time scales in natural systems. It is important to quantify seasonal patterns in F_s through long-term datasets because individual years may show patterns that are not reflective of long-term averages. Additionally, determining predictability of net patterns in soil carbon flux based on environmental factors, such as moisture and temperature, is critical for appropriately modeling forest carbon flux. Ecosystems in moderate climates may have strong CO₂ efflux even during winter, and so continuous quantification of annual variability is especially important. Here, we used a 2008–2023 dataset in a lowland temperate forest ecosystem to address two main questions: (1) What are the seasonal patterns in F_s in a highly productive temperate rainforest? (2) How is average F_s across our study area predicted by average coincident temperature, soil moisture and precipitation totals? Data showed clear seasonality where F_s values are higher in summer. We also find F_s across our measurement network was predicted by variation in abiotic factors, but the interaction between precipitation/moisture and temperature resulted in greater complexity. Specifically, in spring a relatively strong relationship between air temperature and F_s was present, while in summer the relationship between temperature and F_s was flat. Winter and autumn seasons showed weak positive relationships. Meanwhile, a negative relationship between precipitation and Fs was present in only some seasons because most precipitation falls outside the normal growing season in our study system. Our data help constrain estimates of soil CO₂ fluxes in a temperate rainforest ecosystem at ~14–20 kg C ha⁻¹ day⁻¹ in summer and autumn, and 6.5–10.5 kg C ha⁻¹ day⁻¹ in winter and spring seasons. Together, estimates suggest this highly productive temperate rainforest has annual soil-to-atmosphere fluxes of CO₂ that amount to greater than 4.5 Mg C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Sensitivity of such fluxes to regional climate change will depend on the balance of F_s determined by autotrophic phenological responses versus heterotrophic temperature and moisture sensitivity. Relatively strong seasonal variation coupled with comparatively weak responses to abiotic variables suggest F_s may be driven largely by seasonal trends in autotrophic respiration. Accordingly, plant and tree responses to climate may have a stronger effect on F_s in the context of climate change than temperature or moisture changes alone. Full article

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2022

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18 pages, 2062 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Financial Analysis of Potential Carbon Value over 14 Years of Forest Restoration by the Framework Species Method

by Kanlayarat Jantawong, Nuttira Kavinchan, Prasit Wangpakapattanawong and Stephen Elliott

Forests 2022, 13(2), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020144 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4141

Abstract

The carbon storage value of forest restoration, by the framework species method (FSM) in northern Thailand, was assessed for trees (using a partial harvesting technique) and soil and compared with restoration costs. Forest carbon accumulation amounted to 143.08 tC/ha in trees and 8.56 [...] Read more.

The carbon storage value of forest restoration, by the framework species method (FSM) in northern Thailand, was assessed for trees (using a partial harvesting technique) and soil and compared with restoration costs. Forest carbon accumulation amounted to 143.08 tC/ha in trees and 8.56 tC/ha in soil over 14 years, with a combined value of USD 27,173.63 (net present value (NPV), discounted at 2.85%/year)) (at the current European carbon credit (EUA) price of 55.98 EUR/tCO₂ = 242.21 USD/tC). Restoration costs increased from 2190.27 to 5680.72 USD/ha with declining pre-existing natural regeneration or 3.99–10.34 USD per ton of sequestered CO₂. Profits over 14 years ranged in NPV from 22,215.45 to 25,157.04 USD/ha, breaking even from just over 4 years to just under 7, respectively. In contrast, profits from maize cultivation (a major regional deforestation driver) averaged 96.25 USD/ha/year, or just 1347.53 USD/ha over 14 years. Consequently, forest restoration could become a financially attractive alternative land use, provided an open, transparent, carbon market is created. Therefore, this study supports creation of a forest-carbon trading system in Thailand, to incentivize forest restoration and fire prevention, increase farmers’ incomes, reduce smoke-related public health problems, protect watersheds, and conserve biodiversity. Full article

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2020

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20 pages, 2300 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stocks of Carbon in Logs and Timber Products from Forest Management in the Southwestern Amazon

by Flora Magdaline Benitez Romero, Laércio Antônio Gonçalves Jacovine, Sabina Cerruto Ribeiro, José Ambrosio Ferreira Neto, Lucas Ferrante, Samuel José Silva Soares da Rocha, Carlos Moreira Miquelino Eleto Torres, Vicente Toledo Machado de Morais Junior, Ricardo de Oliveira Gaspar, Santiago Ivan Sagredo Velasquez, Edson Vidal, Christina Lynn Staudhammer and Philip Martin Fearnside

Forests 2020, 11(10), 1113; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101113 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4297

Abstract

Amazon forest management plans have a variety of effects on carbon emissions, both positive and negative. All of these effects need to be quantified to assess the role of this land use in climate change. Here, we contribute to this effort by evaluating [...] Read more.

Amazon forest management plans have a variety of effects on carbon emissions, both positive and negative. All of these effects need to be quantified to assess the role of this land use in climate change. Here, we contribute to this effort by evaluating the carbon stocks in logs and timber products from an area under forest management in the southeastern portion of Acre State, Brazil. One hundred and thirty-six trees of 12 species had DBH ranging from 50.9 cm to 149.9 cm. Basic wood density ranged from 0.3 cm⁻³ to 0.8 g cm⁻³ with an average of 0.6 g cm⁻³. The logs had a total volume of 925.2 m³, biomass of 564 Mg, and carbon stock of 484.2 MgC. The average volumetric yield coefficient (VYC) was 52.3% and the carbon yield coefficient (CYC) was 53.2% for logs of the 12 species. The sawn-wood products had a total volume of 484.2 m³, biomass of 302.6 Mg, and carbon stock of 149.9 MgC. Contributions of the different species to the total carbon stored in sawn-wood products ranged from 2.2% to 21.0%. Means and standard deviations for carbon transferred to sawn-wood products per-species from the 1252.8-ha harvested area ranged from 0.4 ± 1.1 MgC to 2.9 ± 0.4 MgC, with the largest percentages of the total carbon stored in wood products being from Dipteryx odorata (21.0%), Apuleia leiocarpa (18.7%), and Eschweilera grandiflora (11.7%). A total of 44,783 pieces of sawn lumber (such as rafters, planks, boards, battens, beams, and small beams) was obtained from logs derived from these trees. Lumber production was highest for boards (54.6% of volume, 47.4% of carbon) and lowest for small beams (1.9% of volume, 2.3% of carbon). The conversion factor for transforming log volume into carbon stored in sawn-wood products was 16.2%. Our results also show that species that retain low amounts of carbon should be allowed to remain in the forest, thereby avoiding low sawmill yield (and consequent generation of waste) and allowing these trees to continue fulfilling environmental functions. Full article

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11 pages, 2761 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Spatial Relationship between Canopy and Understory Leaf Area Index in an Old-Growth Cool-Temperate Deciduous Forest

by Yosuke Tanioka, Yihan Cai, Hideyuki Ida and Mitsuru Hirota

Forests 2020, 11(10), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101037 - 25 Sep 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4157

Abstract

Quantification of leaf area index (LAI) is essential for understanding forest productivity and the atmosphere–vegetation interface, where the majority of gas and energy exchange occurs. LAI is one of the most difficult plant variables to adequately quantify, owing to large spatial and temporal [...] Read more.

Quantification of leaf area index (LAI) is essential for understanding forest productivity and the atmosphere–vegetation interface, where the majority of gas and energy exchange occurs. LAI is one of the most difficult plant variables to adequately quantify, owing to large spatial and temporal variability, and few studies have examined the horizontal and vertical distribution of LAI in forest ecosystems. In this study, we demonstrated the LAI distribution in each layer from the understory to canopy using multiple-point measurements (121 points) and examined the relationships among layers in a cool-temperate deciduous forest. LAI at each point, and the spatial distribution of LAI in each layer, varied within the forest. The spatial distribution of LAI in the upper layer was more heterogeneous than that of LAI at the scale of the entire forest. Significant negative correlations were observed between the upper- and lower-layer LAI. Our results indicate that the understory compensates for gaps in LAI in the upper layer; thus, the LAI of the entire forest tends to remain spatially homogeneous even in a mature forest ecosystem. Full article

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17 pages, 4314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnitude and Edaphic Controls of Nitrous Oxide Fluxes in Natural Forests at Different Scales

by Kerou Zhang, Haidong Wu, Mingxu Li, Zhongqing Yan, Yong Li, Jinzhi Wang, Xiaodong Zhang, Liang Yan and Xiaoming Kang

Forests 2020, 11(3), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11030251 - 25 Feb 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3289

Abstract

Forest nitrous oxide (N₂O) emission plays an important role in the greenhouse gas budget of forest ecosystems. However, spatial variability in N₂O fluxes complicates the determination of key factors of N₂O fluxes at different scales. Based on [...] Read more.

Forest nitrous oxide (N₂O) emission plays an important role in the greenhouse gas budget of forest ecosystems. However, spatial variability in N₂O fluxes complicates the determination of key factors of N₂O fluxes at different scales. Based on an updated database of N₂O fluxes and the main edaphic factors of global forests, the magnitude of N₂O fluxes from forests and the relationships between edaphic factors and N₂O fluxes at different scales were analyzed. According to the results, the average annual N₂O flux of the global forest was 142.91 ± 14.1 mg N m⁻² year⁻¹. The range of total forest estimated N₂O emission was 4.45–4.69 Tg N in 2000. N₂O fluxes from forests with different leaf traits (broadleaved and coniferous) have significant differences in magnitude, whereas the leaf habit (evergreen and deciduous) was an important characteristic reflecting different patterns of N₂O seasonal variations. The main factors affecting N₂O fluxes on the global scale were ammonium (NH₄⁺) and nitrate (NO₃⁻) concentrations. With an increasing scale (from the site scale to the regional scale to the global scale), the explanatory power of the five edaphic factors to N₂O flux decreased gradually. In addition, the response curves of N₂O flux to edaphic factors were diversified among different scales. At both the global and regional scales, soil hydrothermal condition (water filled pore space (WFPS) and soil temperature) might not be the main spatial regulation for N₂O fluxes, whereas soil nutrient factors (particularly NO₃⁻ concentration) could contribute more on N₂O flux spatial variations. The results of site-control analysis demonstrated that there were high spatial heterogeneity of the main N₂O controls, showing N₂O fluxes from low latitude forests being more likely associated with soil WFPS and temperature. Thus, our findings provide valuable insights into the regulatory edaphic factors underlying the variability in N₂O emissions, when modeling at different scales. Full article

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2019

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26 pages, 4494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Evolution of Carbon Stocks, Fluxes and Carbon Balance in Pedunculate Oak Chronosequence under Close-To-Nature Forest Management

by Maša Zorana Ostrogović Sever, Giorgio Alberti, Gemini Delle Vedove and Hrvoje Marjanović

Forests 2019, 10(9), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10090814 - 18 Sep 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4289

Abstract

Under current environmental changes, forest management is challenged to foster contrasting benefits from forests, such as continuous wood supply while preserving biomass production, biodiversity conservation, and contribution to climate change mitigation through atmospheric carbon sequestration. Although being found as globally important, estimates of [...] Read more.

Under current environmental changes, forest management is challenged to foster contrasting benefits from forests, such as continuous wood supply while preserving biomass production, biodiversity conservation, and contribution to climate change mitigation through atmospheric carbon sequestration. Although being found as globally important, estimates of long-term forest C balance are still highly uncertain. In this context, the chronosequence experiments (space-for-time substitution) might fill this gap in even-aged forests, as they represent an approach that enables the assessment of forest net C balance in the long term. In this research, we explored the dynamics of C stocks and fluxes in different forest pools throughout the rotation period (140 years) of a Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) forest in Croatia. For this purpose, we selected a chronosequence that was made up of seven forest stands with different age (5, 13, 38, 53, 68, 108, and 138 years). To address the issues of uncertainty in C balance estimates, we compared net ecosystem carbon balance (NECB) estimated while using two different approaches, which we name pool-change (from C stocks) approach and component-flux (from C fluxes) approach. Overall, the pool-change approach showed higher NECB estimate, with the greatest difference being observed in younger stands (<50 years). Component-flux approach showed significantly higher uncertainty. Throughout the rotation period, managed pedunculate oak stands become a C sink early in their development phase, between the age of 13 and 35 years according to pool-change and component-flux approach, respectively. During the 140 years, oak forest provided 187.2 Mg C ha⁻¹ (604 m³ ha⁻¹) through thinnings and 147.9 Mg C ha⁻¹ (477 m³ ha⁻¹) in the final cut, while preserving, on average, 88.9 Mg C ha⁻¹ in mineral soil down to 40 cm, 18.2 Mg C ha⁻¹ in dead wood, and 6.0 Mg C ha⁻¹ in the forest floor. Soil C stocks in our chronosequence did not show any age-related trend, indicating that current management practice has no negative effect on soil C stocks. Finally, under current close-to-nature forest management, Pedunculate oak forest showed to be sustainable in providing both economic and ecological ecosystem services. Full article

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21 pages, 7619 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Simulation of Net Ecosystem Productivity and Its Response to Climate Change in Subtropical Forests

by Junlong Zheng, Fangjie Mao, Huaqiang Du, Xuejian Li, Guomo Zhou, Luofan Dong, Meng Zhang, Ning Han, Tengyan Liu and Luqi Xing

Forests 2019, 10(8), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10080708 - 20 Aug 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4457

Abstract

Subtropical forests have great potential as carbon sinks; however, the relationship between net ecosystem productivity (NEP) and climate change is still unclear. This study took Zhejiang Province, a subtropical region, as an example. Based on remote sensing classification data of forest resources, the [...] Read more.

Subtropical forests have great potential as carbon sinks; however, the relationship between net ecosystem productivity (NEP) and climate change is still unclear. This study took Zhejiang Province, a subtropical region, as an example. Based on remote sensing classification data of forest resources, the integrated terrestrial ecosystem carbon cycle (InTEC) model was used to simulate the spatiotemporal dynamics of the forest NEP in Zhejiang Province during 1985–2015 and analyze its response to meteorological factors such as temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and radiation. Three patterns emerged: (1) The optimized InTEC model can better simulate the forest NEP in Zhejiang Province, and the correlation coefficient between the simulated NEP and observed NEP was up to 0.75. (2) From 1985 to 2015, the increase in the total NEP was rapid, with an average annual growth rate of 1.52 Tg·C·yr⁻¹. During 1985–1988, the forests in Zhejiang Province were carbon sources. After 1988, the forests turned into carbon sinks and this continued to increase. During 2000–2015, more than 97% of the forests in Zhejiang Province were carbon sinks. The total NEP reached 32.02 Tg·C·yr⁻¹, and the annual mean NEP increased to 441.91 gC·m⁻²·yr⁻¹. The carbon sequestration capacity of forests in the east and southwest of Zhejiang Province is higher than that in the northeast of Zhejiang Province. (3) From 2000 to 2015, there was an extremely significant correlation between forest NEP and precipitation, with a correlation coefficient of 0.85. Simultaneously, the forest NEP showed a negative correlation with temperature and radiation, with a correlation coefficient of −0.56 for both, and the forest NEP was slightly negatively correlated with relative humidity. The relative contribution rates of temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and radiation data to NEP showed that the contribution of precipitation to NEP is the largest, reaching 61%, followed by temperature and radiation at 18% and 17%, respectively. The relative contribution rate of relative humidity is the smallest at only 4%. During the period of 1985–1999, due to significant man-made disturbances, the NEP had a weak correlation with temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and radiation. The results of this study are important for addressing climate change and illustrating the response mechanism between subtropical forest NEP and climate change. Full article

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2018

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11 pages, 1693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microbial Taxa and Soil Organic Carbon Accumulation Driven by Tree Roots

by Wenchen Song and Yanhong Liu

Forests 2018, 9(6), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9060333 - 6 Jun 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3991

Abstract

Rhizosphere microbes in forests are key elements for carbon accumulation in terrestrial ecosystems. To date, little is known on the rhizomicrobial community changes occurring during soil carbon accumulation. Using high-throughput DNA sequencing, we identified the phyla composing the rhizomicrobial communities of Pinus tabuliformis [...] Read more.

Rhizosphere microbes in forests are key elements for carbon accumulation in terrestrial ecosystems. To date, little is known on the rhizomicrobial community changes occurring during soil carbon accumulation. Using high-throughput DNA sequencing, we identified the phyla composing the rhizomicrobial communities of Pinus tabuliformis Carr. and Quercus variabilis Blume forests in North China and their abundance. These results were correlated with the soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation driven by tree roots. Rhizomicrobial community composition and abundance and SOC accumulation varied with tree species, but root presence benefited SOC accumulation significantly. Different phyla played different roles in root-driven carbon accumulation during the succession of a recovery forest ecosystem, but Proteobacteria and Basidiomycota were keystones for root-driven carbon accumulation. Full article

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2017

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2660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stand Dynamics and Biomass Increment in a Lucidophyllous Forest over a 28-Year Period in Central Japan

by Siyu Chen, Akira Komiyama, Shogo Kato, Ruoming Cao, Shinpei Yoshitake and Toshiyuki Ohtsuka

Forests 2017, 8(10), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/f8100397 - 17 Oct 2017

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6481

Abstract

Secondary lucidophyllous forest is one of the dominant forests in human-dominated subtropical/warm-temperate regions in East Asia. There were few direct monitoring techniques to elucidate the following hypotheses: (a) self-thinning may govern the stand development process and (b) wood production decline can be observed [...] Read more.

Secondary lucidophyllous forest is one of the dominant forests in human-dominated subtropical/warm-temperate regions in East Asia. There were few direct monitoring techniques to elucidate the following hypotheses: (a) self-thinning may govern the stand development process and (b) wood production decline can be observed during secondary succession in a lucidophyllous forest. We conducted a long-term study at a permanent plot in central Japan, since 1989. The forest consists mainly of Castanopsis cuspidata in a canopy layer, Cleyera japonica, and Eurya japonica in a subtree layer. During the 28-year period, the basal area of the stand significantly increased due to the growth of C. cuspidata, from 29.18 ± 1.84 (87.8% of total) to 38.71 ± 2.22 m² ha⁻¹ (91.9%), while the stem density of C. cuspidata significantly decreased from 666 ± 13 to 404 ± 10 stems ha⁻¹ in proportion to accumulating biomass (117.8 to 166.6 ton ha⁻¹). The annual woody net primary production ranged from 2.40 ± 0.13 to 3.93 ± 0.33 ton ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ as a nearly 70-year-old forest. There was no age-related decline of woody net primary production (NPP) was found during secondary succession, and the growth of individual tree still increased when the self-thinning process governed the stand. Full article

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2382 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Change in Aboveground Culms Carbon Stocks in the Moso Bamboo Forests and Its Driving Factors in Zhejiang Province, China

by Lin Xu, Yongjun Shi, Guomo Zhou, Xiaojun Xu, Enbing Liu, Yufeng Zhou, Chong Li, Huiyun Fang and Xu Deng

Forests 2017, 8(10), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/f8100371 - 30 Sep 2017

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4774

Abstract

Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) has high carbon sequestration potential and plays an important role in terrestrial carbon cycling. Quantifying the temporal change in Moso bamboo forest carbon stocks is important for understanding forest dynamics and global climate change feedback capacity. In [...] Read more.

Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) has high carbon sequestration potential and plays an important role in terrestrial carbon cycling. Quantifying the temporal change in Moso bamboo forest carbon stocks is important for understanding forest dynamics and global climate change feedback capacity. In 2009, 168 Moso bamboo forest sample plots were established in Zhejiang Province using National Forest Continuous Inventory protocols and enhanced measurements. These plots were revisited and remeasured in 2014. By comparing the two years, culms number in age classes 2 and 4 increased by 12.3% and 82.5%, respectively, while that in age classes 1 and 3 decreased by 14.7% and 0.03%, respectively. The total aboveground culms carbon stocks increased by 2.95 Mg C ha⁻¹ in the sample plots. On average, age classes 2 and 4 contributed 25.5% and 86.7% of the change in total carbon stocks, respectively. The carbon sequestrated by aboveground culms was 0.42 Tg C year⁻¹, accounting for 1.55 Tg CO₂ year⁻¹ in Moso bamboo over an area of 0.78 million hectares in Zhejiang Province. The change in Moso bamboo carbon stocks did not correlate with environmental factors, but significantly increased with increasing culms number and average diameter at breast height (DBH). Our study helps contribute to improvements in Moso bamboo forest management strategies and promote carbon sequestration capacity. Full article

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2253 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Allometric Models to Predict Aboveground Woody Biomass of Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Short Rotation Coppice in Previous Mining and Agricultural Areas in Germany

by Christin Carl, Peter Biber, Dirk Landgraf, Allan Buras and Hans Pretzsch

Forests 2017, 8(9), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/f8090328 - 7 Sep 2017

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6107

Abstract

Black locust is a drought-resistant tree species with high biomass productivity during juvenility; it is able to thrive on wastelands, such as former brown coal fields and dry agricultural areas. However, research conducted on this species in such areas is limited. This paper [...] Read more.

Black locust is a drought-resistant tree species with high biomass productivity during juvenility; it is able to thrive on wastelands, such as former brown coal fields and dry agricultural areas. However, research conducted on this species in such areas is limited. This paper aims to provide a basis for predicting tree woody biomass for black locust based on tree, competition, and site variables at 14 sites in northeast Germany that were previously utilized for mining or agriculture. The study areas, which are located in an area covering 320 km × 280 km, are characterized by a variety of climatic and soil conditions. Influential variables, including tree parameters, competition, and climatic parameters were considered. Allometric biomass models were employed. The findings show that the most important parameters are tree and competition variables. Different former land utilizations, such as mining or agriculture, as well as growth by cores or stumps, significantly influenced aboveground woody biomass production. The new biomass models developed as part of this study can be applied to calculate woody biomass production and carbon sequestration of Robinia pseudoacacia L. in short rotation coppices in previous mining and agricultural areas. Full article

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1798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Potential of Juniperus thurifera to Sequester Carbon in Semi-Arid Forest Soil in Spain

by Elena Charro, Amelia Moyano and Raquel Cabezón

Forests 2017, 8(9), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/f8090330 - 6 Sep 2017

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4744

Abstract

The main purpose of this work is to show the influence of vegetation in the storage and stabilisation of organic carbon in semi-arid Juniperus thurifera (J. thurifera) forest soil in central Spain. The variability of the organic matter storage with factors [...] Read more.

The main purpose of this work is to show the influence of vegetation in the storage and stabilisation of organic carbon in semi-arid Juniperus thurifera (J. thurifera) forest soil in central Spain. The variability of the organic matter storage with factors such as sex, trunk diameter and the protection of the canopy of the tree has been analysed. The distribution of the soil organic carbon (SOC) into different fractions has also been determined, in order to estimate the stability of the organic matter. The results show that the SOC concentration has no dependence on the sex of the tree, but it increases with the diameter of the trunk and under the protection of the tree canopy. This study found that the organic matter of the J. thurifera forest soil has a high proportion of recalcitrant organic fraction, humin, which suggests that, given its organic matter stability, J. thurifera forest soils could be a real carbon sink. Consequently, the conservation of this type of old forest ecosystem is important for promoting carbon sequestration. Full article

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2284 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Impact of Water Content on Sources of Heterotrophic Soil Respiration

by Kristin M. McElligott, John R. Seiler and Brian D. Strahm

Forests 2017, 8(8), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/f8080299 - 16 Aug 2017

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5456

Abstract

Heterotrophic respiration (R_H) is a major flux of CO₂ from forest ecosystems and represents a large source of uncertainty in estimating net ecosystem productivity (NEP) using regional soil respiration (R_S) models. R_H from leaf litter (R_HL [...] Read more.

Heterotrophic respiration (R_H) is a major flux of CO₂ from forest ecosystems and represents a large source of uncertainty in estimating net ecosystem productivity (NEP) using regional soil respiration (R_S) models. R_H from leaf litter (R_HL) may contribute greatly to annual R_H estimates, but its contribution may be misrepresented due to the logistical and technical challenges associated with chamber-based field measurements of R_HL. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity of sources of R_H (mineral soil-derived heterotrophic respiration [R_HM] and leaf litter-derived heterotrophic respiration [R_HL]) of a loblolly pine plantation (Pinus taeda L.) to varying soil and litter water content over the course of a dry down event. Additionally, we investigated whether fertilization influenced R_HL and R_HM to understand how forest nutrient management may impact forest soil carbon (C) dynamics. R_HL was measured under dry conditions and at field capacity to evaluate water content controls on R_HL, determine the duration of increased CO₂ release following wetting, and evaluate the potential contribution to total R_H. We also measured R_HM inside collars that excluded plant roots and litter inputs, from field capacity until near-zero R_HM rates were attained. We found that R_HL was more sensitive to water content than R_HM, and increased linearly with increasing litter water content (R² = 0.89). The contribution of R_HL to R_H was greatest immediately following the wetting event, and decreased rapidly to near-zero rates between 3 and 10 days. R_HMalso had a strong relationship with soil water content (R² = 0.62), but took between 200 and 233 days to attain near-zero R_HM rates. Fertilization had no effect on R_HM(p = 0.657), but significantly suppressed R_HL rates after the wetting event (p < 0.009). These results demonstrate that there is great temporal variability in both CO₂ released and the water content of differing sources of R_H, and forest fertilization may largely impact forest floor C stocks. This variability may not be captured reliably using conventional weekly to monthly chamber-based field sampling efforts and could lead to over- or underestimation of R_H. In the context of climate change, changes in the frequency and intensity of wetting and drying events will likely alter R_HL and its contribution to R_S. Separate consideration of R_H sources and controls, along with increased field sampling frequency using chamber-based methodology under a broader range of specific environmental conditions, are likely needed to reduce variability in R_H estimates and improve the accuracy of forest NEP predictions. Full article

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1341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Stocks across a Fifty Year Chronosequence of Rubber Plantations in Tropical China

by Chenggang Liu, Jiaping Pang, Martin Rudbeck Jepsen, Xiaotao Lü and Jianwei Tang

Forests 2017, 8(6), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/f8060209 - 13 Jun 2017

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7921

Abstract

Transition from forest to rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.) plantation has occurred in tropical China for decades. Rubber has been planted on 1 million ha to provide raw materials to the rubber industry. The role of various-aged rubber plantations in carbon (C) [...] Read more.

Transition from forest to rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.) plantation has occurred in tropical China for decades. Rubber has been planted on 1 million ha to provide raw materials to the rubber industry. The role of various-aged rubber plantations in carbon (C) sequestration remains unclear. The biomass C accumulation including latex C and C distribution in soil of five different-aged stands (7, 13, 19, 25 and 47 years old) were examined. The total biomass C stock (TBC) and total net primary productivity (NPP_total), whether with or without latex C, had a close quadratic relationship with stand age. Regardless of stand age, around 68% of the C was stored in aboveground biomass, and NPP_latex contributed to approximately 18% of C sequestration. Soil organic carbon stock in the 100-cm depth remained relatively stable, but it lost about 16.8 Mg ha⁻¹ with stand age. The total ecosystem C stock (TEC) across stands averaged 159.6, 174.4, 229.6, 238.1 and 291.9 Mg ha⁻¹, respectively, of which more than 45% was stored in the soil. However, biomass would become the major C sink rather than soil over a maximal rubber life expectancy. Regression analysis showed that TEC for rubber plantation at 22 years is comparable to a baseline of 230.4 Mg ha⁻¹ for tropical forest in China, and would reach the maximum value at around 54 years. Therefore, rubber plantation can be considered as alternative land use without affecting net forest ecosystem C storage. In addition to the potential C gains, a full set of ecosystem and economic properties have to be quantified in order to assess the trade-offs associated with forest-to-rubber transition. Full article

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2016

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2276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SOM and Biomass C Stocks in Degraded and Undisturbed Andean and Coastal Nothofagus Forests of Southwestern South America

by Francis Dube and Neal B. Stolpe

Forests 2016, 7(12), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/f7120320 - 20 Dec 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6204

Abstract

Grazing and over-exploitation can severely degrade soil in native forests. Considering that productivity in ecosystems is related to soil organic matter (SOM) content and quality, the objectives of this study were to: (1) determine the influence of degraded (DEF), partly-degraded (PDF), and undisturbed [...] Read more.

Grazing and over-exploitation can severely degrade soil in native forests. Considering that productivity in ecosystems is related to soil organic matter (SOM) content and quality, the objectives of this study were to: (1) determine the influence of degraded (DEF), partly-degraded (PDF), and undisturbed (UNF) Nothofagus forests on the stocks of carbon (C) in tree biomass and SOM; (2) evaluate fractions of SOM as indicators of sustainable management; and (3) use the Century model to determine the potential gains of soil organic C (SOC). The forests are located in the Andes and Coastal mountains of southern Chile. The SOM was fractionated to separate the light fraction (LF), macroaggregates (>212 µm), mesoaggregates (212–53 µm), and microaggregates (<53 µm). In two measurement periods, the SOC stocks at 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm depths in macroaggregates were on average 100% higher in the Andean UNF, and SOC was over twice as much at 20–40 cm depth in Andean DEF. Century simulations showed that improved silvopastoral management would gradually increase total SOC in degraded soils of both sites, especially the Ultisol with a 15% increase between 2016 and 2216 (vs. 7% in the Andisol). Greater SOC in macroaggregates (p < 0.05) of UNF indicate a condition of higher sustainability and better management over the years. Full article

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2107 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomass Accumulation and Net Primary Production during the Early Stage of Secondary Succession after a Severe Forest Disturbance in Northern Japan

by Tomotsugu Yazaki, Takashi Hirano and Tomohito Sano

Forests 2016, 7(11), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/f7110287 - 18 Nov 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8574

Abstract

Quantitative evaluations of biomass accumulation after disturbances in forests are crucially important for elucidating and predicting forest carbon dynamics in order to understand the carbon sink/source activities. During early secondary succession, understory vegetation often affects sapling growth. However, reports on biomass recovery in [...] Read more.

Quantitative evaluations of biomass accumulation after disturbances in forests are crucially important for elucidating and predicting forest carbon dynamics in order to understand the carbon sink/source activities. During early secondary succession, understory vegetation often affects sapling growth. However, reports on biomass recovery in naturally-regenerating sites are limited in Japan. Therefore, we traced annual or biennial changes in plant species, biomass, and net primary production (NPP) in a naturally regenerating site in Japan after windthrow and salvage-logging plantation for nine years. The catastrophic disturbance depleted the aboveground biomass (AGB) from 90.6 to 2.7 Mg·ha⁻¹, changing understory dominant species from Dryopteris spp. to Rubus idaeus. The mean understory AGB recovered to 4.7 Mg·ha⁻¹ in seven years with the dominant species changing to invasive Solidago gigantea. Subsequently, patches of deciduous trees (mainly Betula spp.) recovered whereas the understory AGB decreased. Mean understory NPP increased to 272 g·C·m⁻²·year⁻¹ within seven years after the disturbance, but decreased thereafter to 189 g·C·m⁻²·year⁻¹. Total NPP stagnated despite increasing overstory NPP. The biomass accumulation is similar to that of naturally regenerating sites without increase of trees in boreal and temperate regions. Dense ground vegetation and low water and nutrient availability of the soil in the study site restrict the recovery of canopy-forming trees and eventually influence the biomass accumulation. Full article

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1510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Year Study on Diurnal and Seasonal CO₂ Sequestration of a Young Fraxinus griffithii Plantation in Southern Taiwan

by Chung-I Chen, Ya-Nan Wang, Hsueh-Wen Lih and Jui-Chu Yu

Forests 2016, 7(10), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/f7100230 - 14 Oct 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5197

Abstract

This study examined monthly carbon sequestration of the Himalayan ash (Fraxinus griffithii C. B. Clarke), an important plantation species in Taiwan. From January 2010 to December 2012, data were collected from an F. griffithii plantation in southern Taiwan, which experiences a typical [...] Read more.

This study examined monthly carbon sequestration of the Himalayan ash (Fraxinus griffithii C. B. Clarke), an important plantation species in Taiwan. From January 2010 to December 2012, data were collected from an F. griffithii plantation in southern Taiwan, which experiences a typical Southeast Asia monsoon climate. To estimate CO₂ sequestration rate, we conducted diurnal measurements of photosynthetic rates and seasonal measurements of photosynthetic light response curves. We also calculated leaf area index to estimate the total leaf area of individual trees. The diurnal variation in photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration exhibited seasonal and annual differences. The range of net CO₂ assimilation rates was 1.34–8.68 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ in 2010, 1.02–6.60 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ in 2011, and 1.13–4.45 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ in 2012. A single F. griffithii tree sequestrated 12.21 kg·year⁻¹ CO₂ on average. Annual CO₂ sequestration occurred primarily during the summer for all years, averaging 14.89 Mg·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹ for three years. Correlation analyses between various environmental variables and CO₂ sequestration rates indicated that air temperature and soil water content were likely the main factors influencing carbon sequestration of F. griffithii at this study site. Full article

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4017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Biomass and Net Primary Productivity in Southwestern China: A Meta-Analysis Focusing on Environmental Driving Factors

by Li Bin Liu, Hua Mei Yang, Yue Xu, Yin Ming Guo and Jian Ni

Forests 2016, 7(8), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/f7080173 - 6 Aug 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8593

Abstract

Biomass and net primary productivity (NPP) are important factors for studying terrestrial carbon storage and the carbon cycle. Using data from existing literature, this study synthesized and analyzed a comprehensive database of direct field observations of forest biomass and NPP for Southwestern China. [...] Read more.

Biomass and net primary productivity (NPP) are important factors for studying terrestrial carbon storage and the carbon cycle. Using data from existing literature, this study synthesized and analyzed a comprehensive database of direct field observations of forest biomass and NPP for Southwestern China. The biomass of mature natural forests and mature planted forests range from 81.2 Mg·ha⁻¹ to 692.6 Mg·ha⁻¹ (mean = 288.1 Mg·ha⁻¹) and from 76.8 Mg·ha⁻¹ to 670.1 Mg·ha⁻¹ (mean = 181.5 Mg·ha⁻¹), respectively. Mature natural forests have higher biomass than mature planted ones. The NPP values of natural and planted forests range from 1.4 Mg·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹ to 29.6 Mg·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹ (mean = 13.6 Mg·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹) and from 0.6 Mg·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹ to 26.5 Mg·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹ (mean = 9.9 Mg·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹), respectively. Correlations among biomass, NPP, and environmental factors show that NPP significantly decreases with latitude and increases with mean annual temperature, mean annual precipitation, growing degree-days on a 0 °C base, and mean annual drought index, whereas biomass positively correlates with stand age and leaf area index strongly. Karst forests exhibit almost the same NPP as non-karst forests, but the former have significantly lower biomass compared to the latter. Comprehensive regional data synthesis and analysis based on direct field observations of forest biomass and NPP are important for benchmarking global and regional vegetation and carbon models, estimating regional carbon content, restoring vegetation, and mitigating climate change. Full article

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2787 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Sequestration and Sedimentation in Mangrove Swamps Influenced by Hydrogeomorphic Conditions and Urbanization in Southwest Florida

by Daniel A. Marchio, Michael Savarese, Brian Bovard and William J. Mitsch

Forests 2016, 7(6), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/f7060116 - 30 May 2016

Cited by 58 | Viewed by 11705

Abstract

This study compares carbon sequestration rates along two independent tidal mangrove creeks near Naples Bay in Southwest Florida, USA. One tidal creek is hydrologically disturbed due to upstream land use changes; the other is an undisturbed reference creek. Soil cores were collected in [...] Read more.

This study compares carbon sequestration rates along two independent tidal mangrove creeks near Naples Bay in Southwest Florida, USA. One tidal creek is hydrologically disturbed due to upstream land use changes; the other is an undisturbed reference creek. Soil cores were collected in basin, fringe, and riverine hydrogeomorphic settings along each of the two tidal creeks and analyzed for bulk density, total organic carbon profiles, and sediment accretion. Radionuclides ¹³⁷Cs and ²¹⁰Pb were used to estimate recent sediment accretion and carbon sequestration rates. Carbon sequestration rates (mean ± standard error) for seven sites in the two tidal creeks on the Naples Bay (98 ± 12 g-C m⁻²·year⁻¹ (n = 18)) are lower than published global means for mangrove wetlands, but consistent with other estimates from the same region. Mean carbon sequestration rates in the reference riverine setting were highest (162 ± 5 g-C m⁻²·year⁻¹), followed by rates in the reference fringe and disturbed riverine settings (127 ± 6 and 125 ± 5 g-C m⁻²·year⁻¹, respectively). The disturbed fringe sequestered 73 ± 10 g-C m⁻²·year⁻¹, while rates within the basin settings were 50 ± 4 g-C m⁻²·year⁻¹ and 47 ± 4 g-C m⁻²·year⁻¹ for the reference and disturbed creeks, respectively. These data support our hypothesis that mangroves along a hydrologically disturbed tidal creek sequestered less carbon than did mangroves along an adjacent undisturbed reference creek. Full article

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6091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variations of Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapor and Energy Fluxes in Tropical Indian Mangroves

by Suraj Reddy Rodda, Kiran Chand Thumaty, Chandra Shekhar Jha and Vinay Kumar Dadhwal

Forests 2016, 7(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/f7020035 - 6 Feb 2016

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 10701

Abstract

We present annual estimates of the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide (CO₂) accumulated over one annual cycle (April 2012 to March 2013) in the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem, Sundarbans (India), using the eddy covariance method. An eddy covariance flux [...] Read more.

We present annual estimates of the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide (CO₂) accumulated over one annual cycle (April 2012 to March 2013) in the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem, Sundarbans (India), using the eddy covariance method. An eddy covariance flux tower was established in April 2012 to study the seasonal variations of carbon dioxide fluxes due to soil and vegetation-atmosphere interactions. The half-hourly maximum of the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) varied from −6 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ during the summer (April to June 2012) to −10 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ during the winter (October to December 2012), whereas the half-hourly maximum of H₂O flux varied from 5.5 to 2.5 mmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ during October 2013 and July 2013, respectively. During the study period, the study area was a carbon dioxide sink with an annual net ecosystem productivity (NEP = −NEE) of 249 ± 20 g·C m⁻²·year⁻¹. The mean annual evapotranspiration (ET) was estimated to be 1.96 ± 0.33 mm·day⁻¹. The gap-filled NEE was also partitioned into Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) and Ecosystem Respiration (R_e). The total GPP and R_e over the study area for the annual cycle were estimated to be1271 g C m⁻²·year⁻¹ and 1022 g C m⁻²·year⁻¹, respectively. The closure of the surface energy balance accounted for of about 78% of the available energy during the study period. Our findings suggest that the Sundarbans mangroves are currently a substantial carbon sink, indicating that the protection and management of these forests would lead as a strategy towards reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Full article

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666 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Opportunities for Promoting Synergies between Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Forest Carbon Initiatives

by Eugene L. Chia, Kalame Fobissie and Markku Kanninen

Forests 2016, 7(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/f7010024 - 15 Jan 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6988

Abstract

There is growing interest in designing and implementing climate change mitigation and adaptation (M + A) in synergy in the forest and land use sectors. However, there is limited knowledge on how the planning and promotion of synergies between M + A can [...] Read more.

There is growing interest in designing and implementing climate change mitigation and adaptation (M + A) in synergy in the forest and land use sectors. However, there is limited knowledge on how the planning and promotion of synergies between M + A can be operationalized in the current efforts to mitigate climate change through forest carbon. This paper contributes to fill this knowledge gap by exploring ways of planning and promoting M + A synergy outcomes in forest carbon initiatives. It examines eight guidelines that are widely used in designing and implementing forest carbon initiatives. Four guiding principles with a number of criteria that are relevant for planning synergy outcomes in forest carbon activities are proposed. The guidelines for developing forest carbon initiatives need to demonstrate that (1) the health of forest ecosystems is maintained or enhanced; (2) the adaptive capacity of forest-dependent communities is ensured; (3) carbon and adaptation benefits are monitored and verified; and (4) adaptation outcomes are anticipated and planned in forest carbon initiatives. The forest carbon project development guidelines can encourage the integration of adaptation in forest carbon initiatives. However, their current efforts guiding projects and programs to deliver biodiversity and environmental benefits, ecosystem services, and socioeconomic benefits are not considered explicitly as efforts towards enhancing adaptation. An approach for incentivizing and motivating project developers, guideline setters, and offset buyers is imperative in order to enable existing guidelines to make clear contributions to adaptation goals. We highlight and discuss potential ways of incentivizing and motivating the explicit planning and promotion of adaptation outcomes in forest carbon initiatives. Full article

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1452 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Stand Origin and Near-Natural Restoration on the Stock and Structural Composition of Fallen Trees in Mid-Subtropical Forests

by Chunsheng Wu, Xiaohua Wei, Qifeng Mo, Qinglin Li, Xiaodong Li, Chunjie Shu, Liangying Liu and Yuanqiu Liu

Forests 2015, 6(12), 4439-4450; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6124380 - 3 Dec 2015

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5713

Abstract

Fallen trees comprise an important part of forest ecosystems and serve a central role in maintaining the biodiversity and tree regeneration of forests. However, the effects of stand origin and near-natural restoration on the biomass and carbon stock of fallen trees remain unclear. [...] Read more.

Fallen trees comprise an important part of forest ecosystems and serve a central role in maintaining the biodiversity and tree regeneration of forests. However, the effects of stand origin and near-natural restoration on the biomass and carbon stock of fallen trees remain unclear. Based on 60 sampling plots of field surveys of mid-subtropical forests in Jiangxi Province, we investigated the stock and structural composition of fallen trees in artificial coniferous forests (Acf), natural coniferous forests (Ncf) (e.g., different stand origins) and natural evergreen broadleaf forests (Nebf) (e.g., near-natural restoration). The following results were obtained: (1) the largest biomass and carbon stocks of fallen trees among three forest types (Nebf, Ncf and Acf) were measured for Nebf; (2) the fallen tree biomass and carbon stock in natural Cunninghamia lanceolata forest (Nclf) were significantly larger than that in artificial Cunninghamia lanceolata forest (Aclf), and the fallen tree biomass and carbon stock in natural Pinus massoniana forest (Npf) were also significantly larger than those in artificial Pinus massoniana forest (Apf); (3) the diameter class allocation in natural forests was more uniform than that in artificial forests; (4) the biomass of fallen trees with mild decay was not significantly different among forest types within stand origin or among the stand origin within forest types; however, the biomass of fallen trees with moderate and heavy decay significantly differed among stand origin (Aclf vs. Nclf, Apf vs. Npf), but was not significant among the forest types (Aclf vs. Apf, Nclf vs. Apf) within a stand origin. Our results suggested that the large biomass and carbon stock of fallen trees in Nebf may serve a significant role in mitigating global warming and carbon cycles in mid-subtropical forests. Therefore, stand origin and near-natural restoration exert significant effects on the carbon stock and structural composition of fallen trees in mid-subtropical forests. Full article

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763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomass Stock and Carbon Sequestration in a Chronosequence of Pinus massoniana Plantations in the Upper Reaches of the Yangtze River

by Meta Francis Justine, Wanqin Yang, Fuzhong Wu, Bo Tan, Muhammad Naeem Khan and Yeyi Zhao

Forests 2015, 6(10), 3665-3682; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6103665 - 15 Oct 2015

Cited by 65 | Viewed by 7530

Abstract

Planted forest plays a significant role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation; however, little information has been available on the distribution patterns of carbon pools with stand ages in Pinus massoniana Plantations. We investigated the biomass stock and carbon sequestration across a [...] Read more.

Planted forest plays a significant role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation; however, little information has been available on the distribution patterns of carbon pools with stand ages in Pinus massoniana Plantations. We investigated the biomass stock and carbon sequestration across a chronosequence (3-, 5-, 7-, 9-, 12-, 15-, 19-, 29-, 35- and 42-year) of stands with the main objectives: (1) to determine the biomass and carbon stock of the forest ecosystem; and (2) to identify factors influencing their distribution across the age series. Simple random sampling was used for collecting field data in the ten (10) stand ages. Three 20 × 20 m standard plots were laid out in February 2015 across the chronosequence. The diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree height (H) of each tree within each plot were measured using calipers and height indicator. Sub-plots of 2 × 2 m were established in each main plot for collecting soil samples at a 0–30- and 30–60-cm depth. Plantation biomass increased with increasing stand ages, ranging from 0.84 tonnes per hectare (t·ha⁻¹) in the three-year stand to 252.35 t·ha⁻¹ in the 42-year stand. The aboveground biomass (AGB) contributed 86.51%; the maximum value is 300-times the minimum value. Carbon concentrations and storage in mineral soil decreased with increasing soil depth, but were controlled by the management history of the ecosystem. The total ecosystem carbon storage varies with stand ages, ranging from 169.90 t·ha⁻¹ in the five-year plantation to 326.46 t·ha⁻¹ in the 42-year plantation, of which 80.29% comes from the mineral soil carbon and 19.71% from the vegetation. The ratio of the total carbon sequestration by the 42-year to the three-year stand was 1.70, implying substantial amounts of carbon accumulation during the transition period from young to mature-aged trees. The forest ecosystem had the capacity of storing up to 263.16 t·ha⁻¹ carbon, assisting in mitigating climate change by sequestrating 965.83 t·ha⁻¹ of CO₂ equivalents, indicating that the forest is an important carbon sink. Full article

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266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Budgets for Caribbean Mangrove Forests of Varying Structure and with Phosphorus Enrichment

by Catherine E. Lovelock, Lorae T. Simpson, Lisa J. Duckett and Ilka C. Feller

Forests 2015, 6(10), 3528-3546; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6103528 - 7 Oct 2015

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7655

Abstract

There are few detailed carbon (C) budgets of mangrove forests, yet these are important for understanding C sequestration in mangrove forests, how they support the productivity of the coast and their vulnerability to environmental change. Here, we develop C budgets for mangroves on [...] Read more.

There are few detailed carbon (C) budgets of mangrove forests, yet these are important for understanding C sequestration in mangrove forests, how they support the productivity of the coast and their vulnerability to environmental change. Here, we develop C budgets for mangroves on the islands of Twin Cays, Belize. We consider seaward fringing forests and interior scrub forests that have been fertilized with phosphorus (P), which severely limits growth of trees in the scrub forests. We found that respiration of the aboveground biomass accounted for 60%–80% of the fixed C and that respiration of the canopy and aboveground roots were important components of respiration. Soil respiration accounted for only 7%–11% of total gross primary production (GPP) while burial of C in soils was ~4% of GPP. Respiration by roots can account for the majority of soil respiration in fringing forests, while microbial processes may account 80% of respiration in scrub forests. Fertilization of scrub forests with P enhanced GPP but the proportion of C buried declined to ~2% of GPP. Net ecosystem production was 17%–27% of GPP similar to that reported for other mangrove forests. Carbon isotope signatures of adjacent seagrass suggest that dissolved C from mangroves is exported into the adjacent ecosystems. Our data indicate that C budgets can vary among mangrove forest types and with nutrient enrichment and that low productivity mangroves provide a disproportionate share of exported C. Full article

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951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Dioxide and Methane Formation in Norway Spruce Stems Infected by White-Rot Fungi

by Ari M. Hietala, Peter Dörsch, Harald Kvaalen and Halvor Solheim

Forests 2015, 6(9), 3304-3325; https://doi.org/10.3390/f6093304 - 22 Sep 2015

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 8088

Abstract

Globally, billions of tons of carbon sequestered in trees are annually recycled back to the atmosphere through wood decomposition by microbes. In Norway, every fifth Norway spruce shows at final harvest infection by pathogenic white-rot fungi in the genera Heterobasidion and Armillaria. [...] Read more.

Globally, billions of tons of carbon sequestered in trees are annually recycled back to the atmosphere through wood decomposition by microbes. In Norway, every fifth Norway spruce shows at final harvest infection by pathogenic white-rot fungi in the genera Heterobasidion and Armillaria. As these fungi can mineralize all components of wood, we predicted that they have a significant carbon footprint. Gas samples taken from infected stems were analyzed for CO₂ and CH₄ concentrations, and wood samples from different parts of the decay columns were incubated under hypoxic (4% O₂) and anoxic laboratory conditions. In spring and summer the stem concentrations of CO₂ were generally two times higher in trees with heartwood decay than in healthy trees. For most of the healthy trees and trees with heartwood decay, mean stem concentrations of CH₄ were comparable to ambient air, and only some Armillaria infected trees showed moderately elevated CH₄. Consistently, low CH₄ production potentials were recorded in the laboratory experiment. Up-scaling of CO₂ efflux due to wood decay in living trees suggests that the balance between carbon sequestration and emission may be substantially influenced in stands with high frequency of advanced root and stem heartwood decay. Full article

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