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Forests
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Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes
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Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes

A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Ecology and Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 June 2020) | Viewed by 45884

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Panayotis Dimopoulos

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Patras, GR-26504 Patras, Greece
Interests: mapping and assessment of ecosystems and ecosystem services; biodiversity and ecosystem services; inventory and mapping of flora and habitat types/vegetation types; monitoring and conservation status assessment of habitats and species; conservation management of species and habitat types; conservation policy and national biodiversity strategy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Ioannis P. Kokkoris

E-Mail Website
Co-Guest Editor
Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Patras, GR-26504 Patras, Greece
Interests: conservation ecology; biodiversity; biomonitoring; inventory and mapping of flora and habitat types/vegetation types; mapping and assessment of ecosystems and ecosystem services; GIS and remote sensing; environmental management; sustainable development; environmental policy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The ever-growing earth population and the subsequent overexploitation of natural resources (species, habitats, ecosystems, and landscapes) to provide space for human activities is leading to a bottleneck for sustainable environmental management and human well-being. Concern about environmental protection is set in high priority in developed societies; the recent Intergovernmental Science–Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), urges transformative changes that include consideration of technological, economic, and social factors to tackle both direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss. This Special Issue (SI) of Forests deals with the important role of protection and management practices for species, habitats, and landscapes, to (a) promote best practices from the local to the international level, (b) identify spatial and temporal knowledge gaps, (c) combine multidisciplinary aspects for sustainable management practices, (d) identify and interpret the role of stakeholders and socioeconomic parameters in the decision-making process, and (e) integrate the concept of ecosystem services into natural capital assessment, accounting, protection and management strategies. Finally, manuscripts which deal with land-use changes, restoration and cultural landscape identification, and maintenance are also welcome. Papers published in this SI will be important in helping to better understand the contemporary role of environmental science and its crucial contribution to decision and policymaking in order to protect and properly manage the natural capital.

Prof. Dr. Panayotis Dimopoulos
Dr. Ioannis P. Kokkoris
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

  • Conservation management
  • Spatial patterns
  • Temporal patterns
  • Natural capital
  • Species and habitats monitoring
  • Conservation status assessment
  • Ecosystem condition assessment
  • Sustainable practices
  • Ecosystem services

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 659 KiB  
Editorial
Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes: Current Trends and Global Needs
by Panayotis Dimopoulos and Ioannis P. Kokkoris
Forests 2020, 11(12), 1244; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11121244 - 25 Nov 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1836
Abstract
Human well-being and the prerequisite sustainable environmental management are currently at stake, reaching a bottleneck when trying to cope with (i) the ever-growing world population, (ii) the constantly increasing need for natural resources (and the subsequent overexploitation of species, habitats, ecosystems, and landscapes) [...] Read more.
Human well-being and the prerequisite sustainable environmental management are currently at stake, reaching a bottleneck when trying to cope with (i) the ever-growing world population, (ii) the constantly increasing need for natural resources (and the subsequent overexploitation of species, habitats, ecosystems, and landscapes) and (iii) the documented and on-going impacts of climate change. In developed societies, the concern about environmental protection is set high in the public dialogue, as well as to management and policy agendas. The recently constituted Intergovernmental Science—Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) urges transformative changes for technological, economic, and social factors aiming to tackle both direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss. By this, the role of conservation and management practices for the environment is characterized as a crucial and top issue and should deal with (a) promoting best practices from the local to the global level, (b) identifying spatial and temporal knowledge gaps, (c) multidisciplinary aspects for sustainable management practices, (d) identifying and interpreting the role of stakeholders and socio-economic parameters in the decision-making process, and (e) methods and practices to integrate the concept of ecosystem services into natural capital assessment and accounting, conservation and management strategies. Modern literature highlights that land-use change and prioritization, restoration of natural areas, cultural landscape identification and maintenance, should be considered to the top of the scientific and policy agenda, as well as to the epicenter of novel awareness-raising strategies for the environment in the near future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)

Research

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21 pages, 3009 KiB  
Article
Biodiversity of the Cocoa Agroforests of the Bengamisa-Yangambi Forest Landscape in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)
by Germain Batsi, Denis Jean Sonwa, Lisette Mangaza, Jérôme Ebuy and Jean-Marie Kahindo
Forests 2020, 11(10), 1096; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11101096 - 15 Oct 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4967
Abstract
Cocoa agroforestry has evolved into an accepted natural resource conservation strategy in the tropics. It is regularly proposed as one of the main uses for REDD+ projects (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, [...] Read more.
Cocoa agroforestry has evolved into an accepted natural resource conservation strategy in the tropics. It is regularly proposed as one of the main uses for REDD+ projects (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. However, few studies have characterized the cocoa agroforestry systems in this country. Hence, this research proposes to determine the impact of distance from Kisangani (the unique city in the landscape) and land-use intensity on the floristic composition of cocoa agroforests in Bengamisa-Yangambi forest landscape in the Congo Basin. The results revealed that species diversity and density of plants associated with cocoa are influenced by the distance from Kisangani (the main city in the landscape and province). Farmers maintain/introduce trees that play one or more of several roles. They may host caterpillars, provide food, medicine, or timber, or deliver other functions such as providing shade to the cocoa tree. Farmers maintain plants with edible products (mainly oil palms) in their agroforests more than other plants. Thus, these agroforests play key roles in conserving the floristic diversity of degraded areas. As cocoa agroforestry has greater potential for production, biodiversity conservation, and environmental protection, it should be used to slow down or even stop deforestation and forest degradation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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17 pages, 10322 KiB  
Article
Integrating Plant Diversity Data into Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystem and Their Services (MAES) Implementation in Greece: Woodland and Forest Pilot
by Konstantinos Kotsiras, Ioannis P. Kokkoris, Arne Strid and Panayotis Dimopoulos
Forests 2020, 11(9), 956; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11090956 - 1 Sep 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2970
Abstract
Research Highlights: This is the first approach that integrates biodiversity data into Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystem and their Services (MAES) implementation and natural capital accounting process, at the national scale, using an extensive vascular plant dataset for Greece. Background and Objectives: The [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: This is the first approach that integrates biodiversity data into Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystem and their Services (MAES) implementation and natural capital accounting process, at the national scale, using an extensive vascular plant dataset for Greece. Background and Objectives: The study aims to support the MAES implementation in Greece, by assessing, as a pilot, the woodland and forest ecosystem type; the targets of the study are: (a) Identify and map ecosystem type extent; (b) identify ecosystem condition using biodiversity in terms of plant species richness (i.e., total, ecosystem exclusive, endemic, ecosystem exclusive endemic diversity); (c) develop ecosystem asset proxy indicators by combining ecosystem extent and ecosystem condition outcomes; (d) identify shortcomings; and (e) propose future steps and implications for the MAES implementation and natural capital accounting, based on biodiversity data. Materials and Methods: Following the national European Union’s and United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounts-Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EEA) guidelines and the adopted National Set of MAES Indicators, we developed a set of four proxy ecosystem asset indicators to assess ecosystem types with respect to ecosystem area extent and ecosystem condition. This was as interpreted by its plant diversity in terms of species richness (total, ecosystem exclusive, endemic, and ecosystem exclusive endemic diversity). Results: The results revealed that when indicators use well-developed biodiversity datasets, in combination with ecosystem extent data, they can provide the baseline for ecosystem condition assessment, ecosystem asset delineation, and support operational MAES studies. Conclusions: The relation among biodiversity, ecosystem condition, and ecosystem services is not a linear equation and detailed, fine-scale assessments are needed to identify and interpret all aspects of biodiversity. However, areas of importance are pinpointed throughout Greece, and guidance is provided for case-study selection, conservation strategy, and decision-making under the perspective of national and EU environmental policies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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17 pages, 6073 KiB  
Article
The Agroforestry Heritage System of Sabana De Morro in El Salvador
by Antonio Santoro, Ever Alexis Martinez Aguilar, Martina Venturi, Francesco Piras, Federica Corrieri, Juan Rosa Quintanilla and Mauro Agnoletti
Forests 2020, 11(7), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11070747 - 9 Jul 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4398
Abstract
Traditional agroforestry systems are recognized as having great importance for providing multiple benefits for local communities all over the world, especially in tropical countries. Thanks to their multifunctional role, they can support small farmers, contribute to hydrogeological risk reduction, water regulation, preservation of [...] Read more.
Traditional agroforestry systems are recognized as having great importance for providing multiple benefits for local communities all over the world, especially in tropical countries. Thanks to their multifunctional role, they can support small farmers, contribute to hydrogeological risk reduction, water regulation, preservation of soil, agrobiodiversity and landscape, as well as being examples of mitigation and adaptation towards climate change. The Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) aims to identify agricultural systems of global importance, preserving landscape, agrobiodiversity and traditional knowledge, through dynamic conservation principles. The Sabana de Morro is a traditional agroforestry system located in El Salvador based on cattle grazing in pastures with the presence of Crescentia alata and Crescentia cujete trees, locally called Morro or Jícaro. We documented the main characteristics of this system, that has never been deeply studied, in the Municipality of Dolores, in accordance with the five GIAHS criteria, and through detailed land use mapping, to assess the relations between landscape structure, agrobiodiversity and traditional silvopastoral practices. Sabana de Morro proved to be based on strong interactions between trees, cattle and farmers. The pulp of the Morro fruits is eaten by grazing cattle, completing their feeding and giving a peculiar taste to the locally produced cheese. Morro trees provide shade for the animals while cattle contribute by spreading their seeds that also take advantage of the manure. Results show that this agroforestry system contributes to the preservation of a rich agrobiodiversity and of the traditional landscape. At the same time, it supports local farmers’ livelihood and is consistent with the aim of the GIAHS programme, even if further surveys and research are needed to assess the real possibility of the inclusion in this FAO programme. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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20 pages, 5319 KiB  
Article
Medicinal and Aromatic Lamiaceae Plants in Greece: Linking Diversity and Distribution Patterns with Ecosystem Services
by Alexian Cheminal, Ioannis P. Kokkoris, Arne Strid and Panayotis Dimopoulos
Forests 2020, 11(6), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11060661 - 10 Jun 2020
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4287
Abstract
Research Highlights: This is the first review of existing knowledge on the Lamiaceae taxa of Greece, considering their distribution patterns and their linkage to the ecosystem services they may provide. Background and Objectives: While nature-based solutions are sought in many fields, the Lamiaceae [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: This is the first review of existing knowledge on the Lamiaceae taxa of Greece, considering their distribution patterns and their linkage to the ecosystem services they may provide. Background and Objectives: While nature-based solutions are sought in many fields, the Lamiaceae family is well-known as an important ecosystem services provider. In Greece, this family counts 111 endemic taxa and the aim of the present study is to summarize their known occurrences, properties and chemical composition and analyze the correlations between these characteristics. Materials and Methods: After reviewing all available literature on the studied taxa, statistical and GIS spatial analyses were conducted. Results: The known properties of the endemic Lamiaceae taxa refer mostly to medicinal and antimicrobial ones, but also concern nutritional and environmental aspects. Essential oils compositions with high concentrations in molecules of interest (e.g., carvacrol, caryphyllene oxide, etc.) have been found in some taxa, suggesting unexploited applications for these taxa. Distribution patterns show a higher concentration of endemic Lamiaceae on the island of Kriti and southern Peloponnisos; patterns of the endemics’ properties are also highlighted in the biodiversity hotspot of Kriti. However, the lack of data for two thirds of the taxa, regarding their properties or specific distribution, shows a gap of knowledge. Results on endemic Lamiaceae properties and composition are correlated with the supply or potential supply of ecosystem services and the relevant hotspots have been identified. Conclusions: The Greek endemic Lamiaceae taxa are proved to be of great importance, regarding their chemical composition and the properties they confer. The distribution analysis suggests the existence of clustering patterns of plant species with common properties. Finally, this study highlights knowledge gaps that should be filled in order to ensure the conservation of the endemic Lamiaceae taxa and the preservation of the ecosystem services they provide or could potentially provide. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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18 pages, 2641 KiB  
Article
Genetic Diversity and Range Dynamics of Helleborus odorus subsp. cyclophyllus under Different Climate Change Scenarios
by Georgia Fassou, Konstantinos Kougioumoutzis, Gregoris Iatrou, Panayiotis Trigas and Vasileios Papasotiropoulos
Forests 2020, 11(6), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11060620 - 1 Jun 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3634
Abstract
Research Highlights: The effects of climate change on habitat loss, range shift and/or genetic impoverishment of mid-elevation plants has received less attention compared to alpine species. Moreover, genetic diversity patterns of mountain forest herbaceous species have scarcely been explored in the Balkans. [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: The effects of climate change on habitat loss, range shift and/or genetic impoverishment of mid-elevation plants has received less attention compared to alpine species. Moreover, genetic diversity patterns of mountain forest herbaceous species have scarcely been explored in the Balkans. In this context, our study is the first that aims to examine Helleborus odorus subsp. cyclophyllus, a medicinal plant endemic to the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula. Background and Objectives: We compare its genetic diversity and structure along the continuous mountain range of western Greece with the topographically less structured mountains of eastern Greece, and predict its present and future habitat suitability, using several environmental variables. Materials and Methods: Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers were used to genotype 80 individuals from 8 populations, covering almost the species’ entire distribution range in Greece. We investigated the factors shaping its genetic composition and driving its current and future distribution. Results: High gene diversity (0.2239–0.3319), moderate population differentiation (0.0317–0.3316) and increased gene flow (Nm = 1.3098) was detected. According to any GCM/RCP/climate database combination, Helleborus odorus subsp. cyclophyllus is projected to lose a significant portion of its current distribution by 2070 and follow a trend towards genetic homogenization. Conclusions: Populations exhibit in terms of genetic structure a west–east genetic split, which becomes more evident southwards. This is mainly due to geographic/topographic factors and their interplay with Quaternary climatic oscillations, and to environmental constraints, which may have a negative impact on the species’ future distribution and genetic composition. Pindos mountain range seems to buffer climate change effects and will probably continue to host several populations. On the other hand, peripheral populations have lower genetic diversity compared to central populations, but still hold significant evolutionary potential due to the private alleles they maintain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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27 pages, 4667 KiB  
Article
Naturalness Assessment of Forest Management Scenarios in Abies balsamea–Betula papyrifera Forests
by Sylvie Côté, Louis Bélanger, Robert Beauregard, Évelyne Thiffault and Manuele Margni
Forests 2020, 11(5), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11050601 - 25 May 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2741
Abstract
Research Highlights: This research provides an application of a model assessing the naturalness of the forest ecosystem to demonstrate its capacity to assess either the deterioration or the rehabilitation of the ecosystem through different forest management scenarios. Background and Objectives: The model allows [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: This research provides an application of a model assessing the naturalness of the forest ecosystem to demonstrate its capacity to assess either the deterioration or the rehabilitation of the ecosystem through different forest management scenarios. Background and Objectives: The model allows the assessment of the quality of ecosystems at the landscape level based on the condition of the forest and the proportion of different forest management practices to precisely characterize a given strategy. The present work aims to: (1) verify the capacity of the Naturalness Assessment Model to perform bi-directional assessments, allowing not only the evaluation of the deterioration of naturalness characteristics, but also its improvement related to enhanced ecological management or restoration strategies; (2) identify forest management strategies prone to improving ecosystem quality; (3) analyze the model’s capacity to summarize the effect of different practices along a single alteration gradient. Materials and Methods: The Naturalness Assessment Model was adapted to the Abies balsamea–Betula papyrifera forest of Quebec (Canada), and a naturalness assessment of two sectors with different historical management strategies was performed. Fictive forest management scenarios were evaluated using different mixes of forestry practices. The sensitivity of the reference data set used for the naturalness assessment has been evaluated by comparing the results using data from old management plans with those based on Quebec’s reference state registry. Results: The model makes it possible to identify forest management strategies capable of improving ecosystem quality compared to the current situation. The model’s most sensitive variables are regeneration process, dead wood, closed forest and cover type. Conclusions: In the Abies balsamea–Betula papyrifera forest, scenarios with enhanced protection and inclusion of irregular shelterwood cuttings could play an important role in improving ecosystem quality. Conversely, scenarios with short rotation (50 years) could lead to further degradation of the ecosystem quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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25 pages, 7457 KiB  
Article
National Set of MAES Indicators in Greece: Ecosystem Services and Management Implications
by Ioannis P. Kokkoris, Georgios Mallinis, Eleni S. Bekri, Vassiliki Vlami, Stamatis Zogaris, Irene Chrysafis, Ioannis Mitsopoulos and Panayotis Dimopoulos
Forests 2020, 11(5), 595; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11050595 - 24 May 2020
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6047
Abstract
Research Highlights: The developed National Set of Indicators for the Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES) implementation in Greece at the national level sets the official, national basis on which future studies will be conducted for MAES reporting for the [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: The developed National Set of Indicators for the Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES) implementation in Greece at the national level sets the official, national basis on which future studies will be conducted for MAES reporting for the achievement of targets within the National and the European Union (EU) biodiversity Strategy. Background and Objectives: Greece is currently developing and implementing a MAES nation-wide program based on the region’s unique characteristics following the proposed methodologies by the European Commission, in the frame of the LIFE-IP 4 NATURA project (Integrated actions for the conservation and management of Natura 2000 sites, species, habitats and ecosystems in Greece). In this paper, we present the steps followed to compile standardized MAES indicators for Greece that include: (a) collection and review of the available MAES-related datasets, (b) shortcomings and limitations encountered and overcome, (c) identification of data gaps and (d) assumptions and framework setting. Correspondence to EU and National Strategies and Policies are also examined to provide an initial guidance for detailed thematic studies. Materials and Methods: We followed the requirements of the EU MAES framework for ecosystem services and ecosystem condition indicator selection. Ecosystem services reported under the selected indicators were assigned following the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services. Spatial analysis techniques were applied to create relevant thematic maps. Results: A set of 40 MAES indicators was drafted, distributed in six general indicator groups, i.e., Biodiversity, Environmental quality, Food, material and energy, Forestry, Recreation and Water resources. The protocols for the development and implementation of an indicator were also drafted and adopted for future MAES studies in Greece, providing guidance for adaptive development and adding extra indicators when and where needed. Thematic maps representing ecosystem services (ES) bundles and ES hotspots were also created to identify areas of ES importance and simultaneously communicate the results at the national and regional levels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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12 pages, 1498 KiB  
Article
Vertical Distribution and Elevation Preference for the Breeding of Fairy Pittas on Jeju Island, Korea
by Eun-Mi Kim, Chang-Wan Kang, Chang-Yong Choi, Jung-Hwa Chun and Hyun-Young Nam
Forests 2019, 10(11), 1010; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10111010 - 12 Nov 2019
Viewed by 2419
Abstract
Elevation often becomes an important component in the breeding site selection of forest birds because it may affect individual fitness. To understand how the threatened fairy pitta (Pitta nympha Temminck & Schlegel) selects a particular elevation for breeding and whether the pitta [...] Read more.
Elevation often becomes an important component in the breeding site selection of forest birds because it may affect individual fitness. To understand how the threatened fairy pitta (Pitta nympha Temminck & Schlegel) selects a particular elevation for breeding and whether the pitta achieves better reproductive performance in its preferred elevation, we surveyed for the presence of breeding pittas and recorded their reproductive performances at six different elevation zones on Mount Halla in Jeju Island, Korea. We expected that preference for breeding sites and reproductive performance would gradually decrease with increasing elevation. In fact, 73 presence and 78 absence records indicated no preference for breeding sites at elevations lower than 400 m. However, forest habitats between 400 and 600 m were strongly preferred, while locations above 800 m were clearly avoided. The egg-laying date was significantly earlier at lower elevations, but other measures of reproductive performance did not differ between the preferred and non-preferred elevations. Contrary to our expectations, this indicates that there was no clear advantage to a pitta’s reproductive performance based on elevation preference. Our findings suggest that the inherent optimal selection for the best reproductive outcomes was not a key driving factor for the pattern of elevation preference observed, and that the pitta’s preference might be a response to external and environmental factors such as climate conditions. The reduction of anthropogenic impacts by mitigating human–pitta conflicts at lower elevations, such as accidental non-reproductive mortality and forest loss, would help enhance the conservation of the fairy pitta on Jeju Island, a stronghold of this threatened species in Korea. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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Review

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12 pages, 742 KiB  
Review
Methods for Monitoring Large Terrestrial Animals in the Wild
by Alexander Prosekov, Alexander Kuznetsov, Artem Rada and Svetlana Ivanova
Forests 2020, 11(8), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11080808 - 26 Jul 2020
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7640
Abstract
Reliable information about wildlife is absolutely important for making informed management decisions. The issues with the effectiveness of the control and monitoring of both large and small wild animals are relevant to assess and protect the world’s biodiversity. Monitoring becomes part of the [...] Read more.
Reliable information about wildlife is absolutely important for making informed management decisions. The issues with the effectiveness of the control and monitoring of both large and small wild animals are relevant to assess and protect the world’s biodiversity. Monitoring becomes part of the methods in wildlife ecology for observation, assessment, and forecasting of the human environment. World practice reveals the potential of the joint application of both proven traditional and modern technologies using specialized equipment to organize environmental control and management processes. Monitoring large terrestrial animals require an individual approach due to their low density and larger habitat. Elk/moose are such animals. This work aims to evaluate the methods for monitoring large wild animals, suitable for controlling the number of elk/moose in the framework of nature conservation activities. Using different models allows determining the population size without affecting the animals and without significant financial costs. Although, the accuracy of each model is determined by its postulates implementation and initial conditions that need statistical data. Depending on the geographical, climatic, and economic conditions in each territory, it is possible to use different tools and equipment (e.g., cameras, GPS sensors, and unmanned aerial vehicles), a flexible variation of which will allow reaching the golden mean between the desires and capabilities of researchers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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12 pages, 717 KiB  
Review
Forest Climax Phenomenon: An Invariance of Scale
by Raimundas Petrokas
Forests 2020, 11(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11010056 - 2 Jan 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3888
Abstract
We can think of forests as multiscale multispecies networks, constantly evolving toward a climax or potential natural community—the successional process-pattern of natural regeneration that exhibits sensitivity to initial conditions. This is why I look into forest succession in light of the Red Queen [...] Read more.
We can think of forests as multiscale multispecies networks, constantly evolving toward a climax or potential natural community—the successional process-pattern of natural regeneration that exhibits sensitivity to initial conditions. This is why I look into forest succession in light of the Red Queen hypothesis and focus on the key aspects of ecological self-organisation: dynamical criticality, evolvability and intransitivity. The idea of the review is that forest climax should be associated with habitat dynamics driven by a large continuum of ecologically equivalent time scales, so that the same ecological conclusions could be drawn statistically from any scale. A synthesis of the literature is undertaken in order to (1) present the framework for assessing habitat dynamics and (2) present the types of successional trajectories based on tree regeneration mode in forest gaps. In general, there are four types of successional trajectories within the process-pattern of forest regeneration that exhibits sensitivity to initial conditions: advance reproduction specialists, advance reproduction generalists, early reproduction generalists and early reproduction specialists. A successional trajectory is an expression of a fractal connectivity among certain patterns of natural regeneration in the multiscale multispecies networks of landscape habitats. Theoretically, the organically derived measures of pattern diversity, integrity and complexity, determined by the rates of recruitment, growth and mortality of forest tree species, are the means to test the efficacy of specific interventions to avert the disturbance-related decline in forest regeneration. That is of relevance to the emerging field of biocomplexity research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protection and Management of Species, Habitats, Ecosystems and Landscapes)
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