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A special issue of Gels (ISSN 2310-2861). This special issue belongs to the section "Gel Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 February 2024) | Viewed by 27914

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Zhi Yang

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Guest Editor

School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand
Interests: food biomacromolecules structures and functionalities; food rheology; milk proteins; starch and non-starch polysaccharides; small-angle X-ray scattering; small-angle neutron scattering; ultra small-angle neutron scattering; non-thermal food processing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Lirong Cheng

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Guest Editor

Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North 0745, New Zealand
Interests: emulsions; interfaces; proteins; gels; rheology; digestion; small-angle X-ray and neutron scattering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Recent decades have seen vast development in food hydrogel research. For example, hydrogels made from emerging protein resources or fabricated using novel techniques such as high hydrostatic pressure or via novel routes such as self-assembly have attracted extensive attention from both academia and industry. In addition, unique techniques such as (ultra)small-angle X-ray and neutron scattering have been increasingly utilized to probe the microstructures of food hydrogels in their native aqueous states or under external environmental factors such as heating, high hydrostatic pressure, large shear deformation, etc. The time-resolved SAXS/SANS study of food hydrogels under different environmental stressors could provide valuable structural insights toward their practical application. Thus, we are calling for the submission of papers on recent reviews and original studies covering but not limited to the novel fabrication, physicochemical characterization, and structural studies of food hydrogels, particularly those from emerging resources.

Dr. Zhi Yang
Dr. Lirong Cheng
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

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Keywords

emerging protein resources
polysaccharides
self-assembly
microstructure

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 2889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Properties and Dynamic Rheological Characterization of Dioscorea Starch Gels

by Bolanle Omolara Otegbayo, Abiola Rebecca Tanimola, Julien Ricci and Olivier Gibert

Gels 2024, 10(1), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10010051 - 10 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1764

Abstract

Yam (Dioscorea. sp.) is an edible starchy tuber with potential for being a commercial source of starch for industrial purposes, but yam starch is underutilized. The dynamic oscillatory and thermal properties of yam starches from sixteen varieties each of Dioscorea. rotundata, Dioscora. alata, Dioscorea. bulbifera and one variety of Dioscorea. dumetorum from Nigeria were studied to determine their potential for industrial utilization. The storage modulus, loss modulus, damping factor and complex viscosity as a function of frequency (ω) of the dioscorea gels, as well as the onset temperature (T_o), peak gelatinization temperature (T_p), end of gelatinization (T_C), and gelatinization enthalpy of the starches were determined by standard procedures. Results showed that all the dioscorea starches showed a typical elastic behavior with the magnitude of G′ greater than G″ while tan δ < 1 in all varieties. Thus, the starch gels were more elastic than viscous. All the starch gels exhibited shear thinning characteristics and showed frequency (ω) independence characteristics of weak gels. D. rotundata varieties had the lowest ∆H_gel, while D. bulbifera varieties had the highest. The diversity of the visco-elastic and thermal properties of the yam starch gels from different varieties and species can be an advantage in their utilization in both food and non-food industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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14 pages, 2278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interfacial Rheological Study of β-Casein/Pectin Mixtures at the Air/Water Interface

by Olga Mileti, Noemi Baldino, Stefania Luzzi, Francesca R. Lupi and Domenico Gabriele

Gels 2024, 10(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10010041 - 3 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1881

Abstract

Colloidal food products, such as emulsions, foams, gels, and dispersions, are complex systems that need the presence of stabilizing agents to enable their formation and provide stability. Proteins are often used for food foams and emulsions because of their ability to lower interfacial tension and make viscoelastic interfaces. Generally, to improve the resistance against rupture, polysaccharides are used in association with the proteins. Pectin is a complex polysaccharide that can help to stabilize foams or emulsions. This work aims at studying the mechanical resistance of the interface formed by mixtures of β-casein and pectin at high and low methoxylation degrees at the air/water interface using dilatational and shear kinematics. Frequency sweep tests, in the linear region, were performed in shear at different aging times and in dilatational mode, and the rheological data were analyzed. The transient data of the surface tension were analyzed by kinetic models to obtain the characteristic rates of the interfacial phenomena. The kinetic mechanisms of the protein/pectin mixed systems are controlled by protein and show a weak gel behavior for short aging times. The interfaces obtained with both pectins in a mixture with β-casein evolved with time, gelling and showing a solid-like behavior at concentrations of 1 and 10 g/L and after 3.5 h of aging time. The interfacial shear trend obtained suggests a good stabilizing effect of the pectins from citrus with long aging times. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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17 pages, 1292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transglutaminase-Induced Polymerization of Pea and Chickpea Protein to Enhance Functionality

by Brigitta P. Yaputri, Samira Feyzi and Baraem P. Ismail

Gels 2024, 10(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10010011 - 22 Dec 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1964

Abstract

Pulse proteins, such as pea and chickpea proteins, have inferior functionality, specifically gelation, compared to soy protein, hindering their applications in different food products, such as meat analogs. To close the functionality gap, protein polymerization via targeted modification can be pursued. Accordingly, transglutaminase-induced polymerization was evaluated in pea protein isolate (PPI) and chickpea protein isolate (ChPI) to improve their functionality. The PPI and ChPI were produced following a scaled-up salt extraction coupled with ultrafiltration (SE-UF) process. Transglutaminase (TGase)-modified PPI and ChPI were evaluated in comparison to unmodified counterparts and to commercial protein ingredients. Protein denaturation and polymerization were observed in the TG PPI and TG ChPI. In addition, the TGase modification led to the formation of intermolecular β-sheet and β-turn structures that contributed to an increase in high-molecular-weight polymers, which, in turn, significantly improved the gel strength. The TG ChPI had a significantly higher gel strength but a lower emulsification capacity than the TG PPI. These results demonstrated the impact of the inherent differences in the protein fractions on the functional behavior among species. For the first time, the functional behavior of the PPI and ChPI, produced on a pilot scale under mild processing conditions, was comprehensively evaluated as impacted by the TGase-induced structural changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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16 pages, 5035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Moderate Electric Fields on the Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Cheese Emulsions

by Ipek Altay, Lucas Sales Queiroz, Naaman F. Nogueira Silva, Aberham Hailu Feyissa, Federico Casanova, Jens J. Sloth and Mohammad Amin Mohammadifar

Gels 2023, 9(9), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9090747 - 14 Sep 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1546

Abstract

Cheese powder is a multifunctional ingredient that is produced by spray drying a hot cheese emulsion called cheese feed. Feed stability is achieved by manipulating calcium equilibrium using emulsifying salts. However, the increased demand for ‘green’ products created a need for alternative production methods. Therefore, this study investigated the impact of ohmic heating (OH) on Cheddar cheese, mineral balance, and the resulting cheese feed characteristics compared with a conventional method. A full factorial design was implemented to determine the optimal OH parameters for calcium solubilization. Electric field exposure and temperature had a positive correlation with mineral solubilization, where temperature had the greatest impact. Structural differences in pre-treated cheeses (TC) were analyzed using thermorheological and microscopic techniques. Obtained feeds were analyzed for particle size, stability, and viscosity. OH-treatment caused a weaker cheese structure, indicating the potential removal of calcium phosphate complexes. Lower component retention of OH_TC was attributed to the electroporation effect of OH treatment. Microscopic images revealed structural changes, with OH_TC displaying a more porous structure. Depending on the pre-treatment method, component recovery, viscosity, particle size distribution, and colloidal stability of the obtained feeds showed differences. Our findings show the potential of OH in mineral solubilization; however, further improvements are needed for industrial application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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17 pages, 3640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Waxy Oleogels for Partial Substitution of Solid Fat in Margarines

by Roman Sobolev, Yuliya Frolova, Varuzhan Sarkisyan and Alla Kochetkova

Gels 2023, 9(9), 683; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9090683 - 24 Aug 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1784

Abstract

One of the research directions of oleogels is to study the possibility of their practical application in the food industry as an alternative to solid fats. In this work, the possibility of replacing solid fat in margarine (fat content 82.5%) with oleogels was evaluated. The oleogel content varied from 10 to 50% of the fat phase. The concentration of gelator for which beeswax or wax components (9:1 combination of beeswax and hydrocarbons) were used represented 3% in oleogels. The fatty acid composition of the fat components used, their textural characteristics, and their color were studied. The following physicochemical and rheological properties of margarines were determined: color values, textural and thermal characteristics, and sensory properties. The data obtained were processed using principal component analysis (PCA). Oleogels were characterized by lower textural properties compared to commercial fat (CF), but a lower content of saturated fatty acids. When using oleogels, the color characteristics of the margarines changed insignificantly. A decrease in textural and organoleptic properties was shown when using more than 30% oleogel in the composition of margarines. It was found that an increase in the proportion of oleogel leads to a decrease in the melting enthalpy of margarines. The margarines, depending on the ratio of oleogel in the fat phase, were characterized by a content of saturated fatty acids reduced by 7–35% and increased by a 18–92% level of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Thus, the application of oleogels in margarine technology makes it possible to adjust the fatty acid composition while improving the physicochemical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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16 pages, 2705 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fiber Enrichment of 3D Printed Apricot Gel Snacks with Orange By-Products

by Carmen Molina-Montero, Diana Vicente-Jurado, Marta Igual, Javier Martínez-Monzó and Purificación García-Segovia

Gels 2023, 9(7), 569; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9070569 - 12 Jul 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1694

Abstract

Concern about food waste has become a major global concern. The waste generated by the agri-food industry poses an environmental challenge. However, the development of 3D printing technology offers an opportunity to address this problem. By incorporating food waste into inks, it can create personalized food tailored to individual needs. The aim of this study is the valorization of orange by-products (OB_P) in 3D printed gels to obtain a final product in the form of a fiber-enriched snack. Gelatin gels were printed with different concentrations of apricot pulp (30, 50, and 70%) and OB_P was added. These gels were subjected to a freeze-drying process. The rheology of the gels before and after printing, the printing precision, and the post-treatment of the freeze-dried product, including color, shear force, and the presence of bioactive compounds, were evaluated. The addition of OB_P resulted in an increase in the elasticity (997–1242u) of the samples and improved the printability of them. However, an increase in the hardness (173–184u) was observed in the freeze-dried samples. The use of OB_P not only improves the printability of the gels but also enables obtaining fiber-enriched snacks, which could contribute to the reduction in food waste and the promotion of healthy and sustainable food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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11 pages, 2878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Extraction of Chitosan and Fish Gelatin from Fishery Waste and Their Antimicrobial Potential as Active Biopolymers

by Javier Rocha-Pimienta, Bruno Navajas-Preciado, Carmen Barraso-Gil, Sara Martillanes and Jonathan Delgado-Adámez

Gels 2023, 9(3), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9030254 - 22 Mar 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2988

Abstract

Fishery residues are abundant raw materials that also provide numerous metabolites with high added value. Their classic valorization includes energy recovery, composting, animal feed, and direct deposits in landfills or oceans along with the environmental impacts that this entails. However, through extraction processes, they can be transformed into new compounds with high added value, offering a more sustainable solution. The aim of this study was to optimize the extraction process of chitosan and fish gelatin from fishery waste and their revalorization as active biopolymers. We successfully optimized the chitosan extraction process, achieving a yield of 20.45% and a deacetylation degree of 69.25%. For the fish gelatin extraction process, yields of 11.82% for the skin and 2.31% for the bone residues were achieved. In addition, it was demonstrated that simple purification steps using activated carbon improve the gelatin’s quality significantly. Finally, biopolymers based on fish gelatin and chitosan showed excellent bactericidal capabilities against Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua. For this reason, these active biopolymers can stop or decrease bacterial growth in their potential food packaging applications. In view of the low technological transfer and the lack of information about the revalorization of fishery waste, this work offers extraction conditions with good yields that can be easily implemented in the existing industrial fabric, reducing costs and supporting the economic development of the fish processing sector and the creation of value from its waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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13 pages, 2686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Leavening Effect of Ice like CO₂ Gas Hydrates by Addition of Gelling Agents in Wheat Bread

by Shubhangi Srivastava, Ann Mary Kollemparembil, Viktoria Zettel, Antonio Delgado, Mario Jekle and Bernd Hitzmann

Gels 2023, 9(3), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9030223 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1594

Abstract

This article brings together the application of ice-like CO₂ gas hydrates (GH) as a leavening agent in wheat bread along with the incorporation of some natural gelling agents or flour improvers into the bread to enhance the textural properties of the wheat bread. The gelling agents used for the study were ascorbic acid (AC), egg white (EW), and rice flour (RF). These gelling agents were added to the GH bread containing different amounts of GH (40, 60, and 70% GH). Moreover, a combination of these gelling agents in a wheat GH bread recipe was studied for each respective percentage of GH. The combinations of gelling agents used in the GH bread were as follows: (1) AC, (2) RF + EW, and (3) RF + EW + AC. The best combination of GH wheat bread was 70% GH + AC + EW + RF combination. The primary goal of this research is to gain a better understanding of the complex bread dough created by CO₂ GH and its influence on product quality when certain gelling agents are added to the dough. Moreover, the prospect of managing and modifying wheat bread attributes by the use of CO₂ GH with the addition of natural gelling agents has not yet been researched and is a fresh idea in the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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15 pages, 6055 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stress and Strain Characteristics under the Large Deformation of Surimi Gel during Penetration and Extension Tests Using Digital Image Correlation and the Numerical Simulation Method

by Hwabin Jung, Timilehin Martins Oyinloye and Won Byong Yoon

Gels 2022, 8(11), 740; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8110740 - 15 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1982

Abstract

The stress and strain properties of surimi gels (72.49% moisture content) under large deformation were analyzed during penetration (cylindrical, conical, and spherical puncture) and extension (ring tensile) tests. Mechanical measurements were compared and validated using digital image correlation (DIC) and numerical simulations. The DIC and the finite element method reflected the influence of the probe shape and the surface area in contact with the gel during the measurements. In puncture tests, a larger probe surface increased the strain concentration at the puncture point. In the extension test, the strain distribution was symmetrical. The strain values observed during penetration tests were comparable in both the DIC and numerical simulation. The tensile failure characteristics observed in DIC and numerical simulations are similar to those found in the experiment. The study demonstrated that the extension method with the ring tensile device did not show a stress concentration during the measurement, and DIC and numerical simulation can be effective tools in analyzing the textural properties of surimi gel during the puncture and ring tensile tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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Review

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33 pages, 1924 KiB

Open AccessReview

Oleogels as a Fat Substitute in Food: A Current Review

by Roberta Claro da Silva, Md. Jannatul Ferdaus, Aline Foguel and Thais Lomonaco Teodoro da Silva

Gels 2023, 9(3), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9030180 - 24 Feb 2023

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 9818

Abstract

Fats and oils in food give them flavor and texture while promoting satiety. Despite the recommendation to consume predominantly unsaturated lipid sources, its liquid behavior at room temperature makes many industrial applications impossible. Oleogel is a relatively new technology applied as a total or partial replacement for conventional fats directly related to cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and inflammatory processes. Some of the complications in developing oleogels for the food industry are finding structuring agents Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS), viable economically, and that do not compromise the oleogel palatability; thus, many studies have shown the different possibilities of applications of oleogel in food products. This review presents applied oleogels in foods and recent proposals to circumvent some disadvantages, as reaching consumer demand for healthier products using an easy-to-use and low-cost material can be intriguing for the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advance in Food Gels)

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