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Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture

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A special issue of Horticulturae (ISSN 2311-7524). This special issue belongs to the section "Protected Culture".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 38113

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Hye-Ji Kim

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Guest Editor

Department Horticulture & Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
Interests: sustainable crop production; plant propagation; plant physiology; plant nutrition; nitrogen; phosphorus; water use; supplemental lighting; hydroponics; aquaponics; soilless substrates; crop yield and quality; system efficiency
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Rapid population growth and urbanization have increased the demand for food production with less water, nutrients, and energy use. More sustainable and efficient food crop production systems are needed in urban areas to provide fresh and healthy produce to those in need.

Controlled-environment production systems (i.e., hydroponics, aquaponics, soilless substrates) are known to be most efficient, taking on an increasingly important role in food production systems. The current practices involving high resource inputs such as chemical fertilizer and energy will need to take an evolutionary leap forward to make the controlled environment agriculture more efficient.

The purpose of this Special Issue on “Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture” is to explore innovative approaches in improving efficiency for controlled environment production systems. Topics could include sustainable approaches to increase crop yield and quality:

New production methods
New propagation methods
Resource use efficiency (Water, nutrients, and energy)
Water reuse
Organic fertilizers
Light source and quality
Alternative substrates

Your contribution to this topic through a literature review or original research paper is welcome. I look forward to receiving your manuscript.

Dr. Hye-Ji Kim
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Horticulturae is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Sustainability
Food security
Plant physiology
Water recycling
Greenhouse
Vertical farming

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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28 pages, 10559 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Adaptalight: An Inexpensive PAR Sensor System for Daylight Harvesting in a Micro Indoor Smart Hydroponic System

by Joseph D Stevens, David Murray, Dean Diepeveen and Danny Toohey

Horticulturae 2022, 8(2), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8020105 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4690

Abstract

Environmental changes and the reduction in arable land have led to food security concerns around the world, particularly in urban settings. Hydroponic soilless growing methods deliver plant nutrients using water, conserving resources and can be constructed nearly anywhere. Hydroponic systems have several complex attributes that need to be managed, and this can be daunting for the layperson. Micro Indoor Smart Hydroponics (MISH) leverage Internet of Things (IoT) technology to manage the complexities of hydroponic techniques, for growing food at home for everyday citizens. Two prohibitive costs in the advancement of MISH systems are power consumption and equipment expense. Reducing cost through harvesting ambient light can potentially reduce power consumption but must be done accurately to sustain sufficient plant yields. Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR) meters are commercially used to measure only the light spectrum that plants use, but are expensive. This study presents Adaptalight, a MISH system that harvests ambient light using an inexpensive AS7265x IoT sensor to measure PAR. The system is built on commonly found IoT technology and a well-established architecture for MISH systems. Adpatalight was deployed in a real-world application in the living space of an apartment and experiments were carried out accordingly. A two-phase experiment was conducted over three months, each phase lasting 21 days. Phase one measured the IoT sensor’s capability to accurately measure PAR. Phase two measured the ability of the system to harvest ambient PAR light and produce sufficient yields, using the calibrated IoT sensor from phase one. The results showed that the Adaptalight system was successful in saving a significant amount of power, harvesting ambient PAR light and producing yields with no significant differences from the control. The amount of power savings would be potentially greater in a location with more ambient light. Additionally, the findings show that, when calibrated, the AS7265x sensor is well suited to accurately measure PAR light in MISH systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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15 pages, 1947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological and Physiological Properties of Greenhouse-Grown Cucumber Seedlings as Influenced by Supplementary Light-Emitting Diodes with Same Daily Light Integral

by Zhengnan Yan, Long Wang, Yifei Wang, Yangyang Chu, Duo Lin and Yanjie Yang

Horticulturae 2021, 7(10), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7100361 - 4 Oct 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2964

Abstract

Insufficient light in autumn–winter may prolong the production periods and reduce the quality of plug seedlings grown in greenhouses. Additionally, there is no optimal protocol for supplementary light strategies when providing the same amount of light for plug seedling production. This study was conducted to determine the influences of combinations of supplementary light intensity and light duration with the same daily light integral (DLI) on the morphological and physiological properties of cucumber seedlings (Cucumis sativus L. cv. Tianjiao No. 5) grown in a greenhouse. A supplementary light with the same DLI of 6.0 mol m⁻² d⁻¹ was applied with the light duration set to 6, 8, 10, or 12 h d⁻¹ provided by light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and cucumber seedlings grown with sunlight only were set as the control. The results indicated that increasing DLI using supplementary light promoted the growth and development of cucumber seedlings over those grown without supplementary light; however, opposite trends were observed in the superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities. Under equal DLI, increasing the supplementary light duration from 6 to 10 h d⁻¹ increased the root surface area (66.8%), shoot dry weight (24.0%), seedling quality index (237.0%), root activity (60.0%), and stem firmness (27.2%) of the cucumber seedlings. The specific leaf area of the cucumber seedlings decreased quadratically with an increase in supplementary light duration, and an opposite trend was exhibited for the stem diameter of the cucumber seedlings. In summary, increased DLI or longer light duration combined with lower light intensity with equal DLI provided by supplementary light in insufficient sunlight seasons improved the quality of the cucumber seedlings through the modification of the root architecture and stem firmness, increasing the mechanical strength of the cucumber seedlings for transplanting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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10 pages, 553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Capture and Reuse Model for Aquaculture Effluent as a Hydroponic Nutrient Solution Using Aerobic Microbial Reactors

by Joseph Tetreault, Rachel Fogle and Todd Guerdat

Horticulturae 2021, 7(10), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7100334 - 23 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2351

Abstract

Controlled environment agriculture (CEA) technologies are required to meet current and future food production demand as the global population rises, arable land decreases, and minerals for fertilizer production are depleted. Hydroponics and recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) are intensive production methods that can provide season-independent vegetables and seafood in urban settings but are limited by a reliance on fertilizing solutions made from finite mineral reserves and the treatment and disposal costs of nutrient rich effluent, respectively. The development of a capture and reuse system where RAS effluent is solubilized to become plant-available and utilized as a hydroponic nutrient solution would aid both industries and increase food security in urban food deserts. Aerobic mineralization is used in domestic wastewater treatment to reduce solid content and solubilize particulate-bound nutrients. Preliminary studies have also shown that aerobic mineralization can be an effective method for RAS effluent treatment. Aerobic batch reactors were used to mineralize RAS effluent in this study. Suspended solids reduction achieved in the reactors was measured throughout the experiment and the plant-availability of twelve nutrients was determined before and after treatment. It was shown that aerobic mineralization can effectively reduce particulate-bound solids and solubilize nutrients to increase plant utilization in RAS effluent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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9 pages, 453 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Why Do Medium-Sized Technology Farms Adopt Environmental Innovation? The Mediating Role of Pro-Environmental Behaviors

by Stanley Y. B. Huang, Ming-Way Li and Yue-Shi Lee

Horticulturae 2021, 7(9), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7090318 - 16 Sep 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2659

Abstract

This research fills several gaps in the literature not investigated in previous studies. First, it examines how the responsible leadership (RL) of the chief executive officer (CEO) influences medium-sized technology farms to adopt environmental innovation (EI) through the pro-environmental behaviors (PBs) of the senior executive team (SET) according to the theory of social learning, as previous research only took institutional theory and utilitarianism as the driving factors of agricultural innovation. Second, we propose the potential growth model (PGM) from a sample of 105 CEOs and their SETs in medium-sized technology farms to handle the problem that an individual may regulate his behaviors based on how he translates and understands the surrounding environment, because previous research has ignored this perspective. Lastly, this research offers recommendations for the implementation of EI in medium-sized technology farms and also expands the related literature on sustainable agricultural production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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17 pages, 3054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of NaCl or Macronutrient-Imposed Salinity on Basil Crop Yield and Water Use Efficiency

by Sofia Faliagka, Angeliki Elvanidi, Stella Spanoudaki, Alexander Kunze, Johannes F.J. Max and Nikolaos Katsoulas

Horticulturae 2021, 7(9), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7090296 - 7 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2981

Abstract

Cascade hydroponics, that is, the application of the circular economy concept in greenhouse hydroponic crops, may be considered as an alternative means to increase water and nutrient use efficiency in greenhouses. In such systems, the drained nutrient solution from a crop may be used as input in a second crop. However, the second (secondary) crop in the loop must be a crop that is less sensitive to salinity than the first (primary) crop. In the present study, the salinity tolerance of basil plants grown in rockwool and nutrient film technique (NFT) systems was investigated in order to study the potential of using a basil crop as a secondary crop in a cascade hydroponic system. In total, 4 electrical conductivity (EC) levels of the irrigation nutrient solution were tested (2, 4, 6, and 8 dS m⁻¹), and salinity was imposed by NaCl or by macronutrients. Plant growth varied across the different substrates, with those grown in the NFT system being less affected as opposed to the rockwool-grown basil plants, which showed a significant growth decrease with EC values higher than 4 dS m⁻¹. This relatively low growth pattern was associated with a decrease in water use efficiency (WUE) in the rockwool system. On the contrary, in the NFT system, the continuous flow of the nutrient solution in the root zone of the plants contributed to the alleviation of negative salinity effects, yielding up to 30 kg FM m⁻² WUE even for the plants irrigated with the highest salinity treatment (8 dS m⁻¹). The majority of macro- and micronutrients in the leaf tissue of basil were positively affected by the higher levels of conductivity in the nutrient solution. Therefore, basil cultivation could be efficiently incorporated as a secondary crop in a cascade NFT cropping system. This would contribute to drainage management in hydroponics, as the crop could be irrigated through the moderately saline drainage from a primary crop due to either NaCl or high nutrient accumulation in the leachates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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12 pages, 1822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Growth of Leaf Lettuce and Bacterial Communities in a Closed Aquaponics System with Catfish

by Kenji Yamane, Yuuki Kimura, Keita Takahashi, Isamu Maeda, Masayuki Iigo, Atsuo Ikeguchi and Hye-Ji Kim

Horticulturae 2021, 7(8), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7080222 - 4 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4155

Abstract

Aquaponics is a circulating and sustainable system that combines aquaculture and hydroponics and forms a symbiotic relationship between fish, plants, and microorganisms. We hypothesized that feed alone could support plant growth, but the symbiosis with fish adds some beneficial effects on plant growth in aquaponics. In this study, we created three closed culture systems, namely, aquaponics, hydroponics without nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), and aquaculture, and added the same amount of feed containing N and P to all the treatments in order to test the hypothesis. Accumulation of NO₃⁻ and PO₄³⁻ was alleviated in aquaponics and hydroponics as a result of plant uptake. Lettuce plants grown in aquaponics grew vigorously until 2 weeks and contained a constant level of N in plants throughout the production period, whereas those in hydroponics grew slowly in the early stage and then vigorously after 2 weeks with a late increment of N concentration. These results suggest that catfish help with the faster decomposition of the feed, but, in hydroponics, feed can be slowly dissolved and decomposed owing to the absence of the fish. The bacterial community structures of the culture solution were investigated using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. At the class level, Actinobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, and Gammaproteobacteria were the major microbial groups in the solutions. Aquaponics prevented the pollution of tank solution and maintained a higher water quality compared with hydroponics and aquaculture, suggesting that aquaponics is a more sustainable cultivation system even in a small-scale system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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12 pages, 640 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effects of Plant Age and Root Damage on Internalization of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Leafy Vegetables and Herbs

by Yi-Ju Wang, Amanda J. Deering and Hye-Ji Kim

Horticulturae 2021, 7(4), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7040068 - 2 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3494

Abstract

Our previous study reported that fresh produce grown in aquaponic and hydroponic systems can pose potential food safety hazards due to an accidental introduction of contaminated fish and cross-contamination between the systems. In this study, we examined the effects of plant species and age on the likelihood and level of internalization of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in aquaponic and hydroponic systems. Four plant species, basil (Ocimum basilicum L. cv. Genovese), cilantro (Coriandrum Sativum L.), lettuce (Lactuca sativa cv. Cherokee), and kale (Brassica oleracea var. sabellica), received root damage treatment as seedlings before transplanting or mature plants at three weeks after transplanting by cutting off 1-cm tips of one-third of the roots. Enrichments and selective media were used for the isolation, and presumptive positive colonies were confirmed by PCR for the presence of stx1 gene in plant tissues, recirculating water, and fish feces collected at four weeks after transplanting. In hydroponic systems, STEC was found neither in the solution nor in the roots and leaves of all four plant species, possibly through improved sanitation and hygiene practices. However, consistent with our previous findings, STEC was found in the water, on the plant roots, and in the fish feces in aquaponic systems, even after thorough sanitation prior to the study. Regardless of plant age, STEC was internalized in the roots of all plant species when the roots were damaged, but there was no difference in the degree of internalization with STEC among plant species. STEC was present in the leaves only when seedlings received root damage treatment and were grown to maturity, indicating that root damage allows STEC to internalize in the roots within a week, but a longer period is required for STEC to internalize into the leaves. We concluded that root damage on seedlings can cause the internalization of E. coli O157:H7 in the edible parts of leafy vegetables and herbs in soilless production systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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16 pages, 3510 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Implementation of the Circular Economy Concept in Greenhouse Hydroponics for Ultimate Use of Water and Nutrients

by Angeliki Elvanidi, Cinthya Marilu Benitez Reascos, Elissavet Gourzoulidou, Alexander Kunze, Johannes F. J. Max and Nikolaos Katsoulas

Horticulturae 2020, 6(4), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae6040083 - 13 Nov 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5869

Abstract

The circular economy in agriculture aims to reduce waste while also making best use of residues by using economically viable processes and procedures to increase their value. In this study a two-level cascade cultivation system was set up under greenhouse conditions. The research was focused on the identification of crop species as secondary crops and the development/iterative optimization of cultivation practices. For this purpose, different crop-combinations with a primary and different secondary crops were investigated using different system-layouts. Measurements were carried out during two cultivation periods. During the 1st Period a combination of cucumber (Cucumis sativus) as primary crop, with rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), basil (Ocimum basilicum), and peppermint (Mentha piperita) as secondary crops, was evaluated. In the 2nd Period the drainage of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants was re-used to irrigate spearmint (Mentha spicata), dill (Anethum graveolens), celery (Apium graveolens) and parsley (Petroselinum crispum) plants. In both periods, different fertigation management strategies based on the drainage solution of the primary crop were employed. The use of the cascade hydroponic system improved both crop water and nutrient use efficiency. Notably, the NO₃ disposal was about 40% less as compared to a monoculture. Average fresh water consumption of secondary crop plants irrigated with diluted drainage solution was reduced by 30% in comparison to plants irrigated with fresh water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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20 pages, 1470 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Energy and Water Related Parameters in Tomato and Cucumber Greenhouse Crops in Semiarid Mediterranean Regions. A Review, Part II: Irrigation and Fertigation

by Georgios Nikolaou, Damianos Neocleous, Anastasis Christou, Polycarpos Polycarpou, Evangelini Kitta and Nikolaos Katsoulas

Horticulturae 2021, 7(12), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7120548 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4334

Abstract

Increasing agricultural systems’ resource efficiency is the key action for producing adequate food quantities in semi-arid Mediterranean regions while coping with water scarcity, environmental constraints and economic issues. Optimisation of irrigation and fertigation practices imposes different approaches, considering plant-water-soil relationships based on prevailing greenhouse microclimatic conditions, ensuring optimal production per drop of water and unit of fertiliser. In the content of "precision agricultural farming systems", nutrient uptake modelling, phyto-sensing, smart and sustainable technologies must be applied for monitoring and evaluating water and nutrients crops supply. However, in many cases, the use of irrigation and fertigation recipes given in the literature may not be compatible in the Mediterranean, as they usually originated based on northern European climatic conditions. The objective of this work is an attempt to understand various aspects of irrigation and fertigation management in vegetable fruiting crops such as tomato and cucumber towards nutrients and water resource sustainability in Mediterranean greenhouses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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18 pages, 2896 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Energy and Water Related Parameters in Tomato and Cucumber Greenhouse Crops in Semiarid Mediterranean Regions. A Review, Part I: Increasing Energy Efficiency

by Georgios Nikolaou, Damianos Neocleous, Anastasis Christou, Polycarpos Polycarpou, Evangelini Kitta and Nikolaos Katsoulas

Horticulturae 2021, 7(12), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7120521 - 25 Nov 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3239

Abstract

Countries located in the Mediterranean region share many common features in terms of agricultural sustainability and economic realities of modern farming, as they are affected by water scarcity, energy use and climate suitability. Greenhouses are considered as a mitigation measure to combat climate change and as a sustainable production system. The majority of greenhouses in the Mediterranean region are rudimentary, while those in Central and North Europe are characterized by equipment of a high technological level for greenhouse climate and fertigation management. However, the technological innovations and research originating from Central and North Europe glasshouses may not be appropriate for use in Mediterranean plastic greenhouses when considering the trade-off between agronomic needs and potential energy savings. Identifying energy measures suitable for the local climate will improve energy efficiency and crop performance toward the goal of greenhouse sustainability. This review mainly focuses on renewable and energy-efficient control systems in Mediterranean greenhouses, where crops such as tomato and cucumber are widely grown. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation toward Sustainability in Controlled Environment Agriculture)

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