International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Research

9 pages, 354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Activity and Perceived Physical Fitness during the COVID-19 Epidemic: A Population of 40- to 69-Year-Olds in Japan

by Hyuma Makizako, Shoma Akaida, Saki Shono, Ryuhei Shiiba, Yoshiaki Taniguchi, Daijo Shiratsuchi and Yuki Nakai

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 4832; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094832 - 30 Apr 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4267

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused an abrupt change in lifestyle for many people with restrictions, often leading to a decrease in physical activity (PA), and thus contributing to a negative perception of health status. The purpose of this study was to examine the [...] Read more.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused an abrupt change in lifestyle for many people with restrictions, often leading to a decrease in physical activity (PA), and thus contributing to a negative perception of health status. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the COVID-19 epidemic on physical activity and perceived physical fitness in Japanese adults aged 40 to 69 years. Data were collected from an online survey conducted between October 19 and 28, 2020. The analytic sample consisted of 1989 Japanese adults (mean age, 50.1 ± 6.9 years; women, 38.9%) who were aged between 40 and 69 years and completed the online survey. Overall, the PA time per week decreased by 32.4% between October 2019 and April 2020. A decrease in PA time was recorded in October 2020; however, a decline of 15.5% was observed. Compared to individuals who did not perceive a decline in physical fitness, individuals who perceived declining physical fitness during the COVID-19 state of emergency demonstrated a greater decrease in PA time in April 2020 (–50.5%), and this trend continued into October 2020 (–25.0%). These findings may indicate that Japanese adults aged 40 to 69 years who perceived declining physical fitness experienced a greater decrease in physical activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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11 pages, 1090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Knee Extensor Muscle-Tendon Unit Stiffness to Unaccustomed and Repeated High-Volume Eccentric Exercise

by Pornpimol Muanjai, Mantas Mickevicius, Audrius Snieckus, David A. Jones, Pavelas Zachovajevas, Danguole Satkunskiene, Tomas Venckunas and Sigitas Kamandulis

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 4510; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094510 - 23 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2223

Abstract

The purposes of this study were to investigate the muscle-tendon unit stiffness response and to compare the stiffness with those of other indirect markers induced by two bouts of unaccustomed eccentric exercise. Eleven untrained men performed two bouts of 200 maximal eccentric contractions [...] Read more.

The purposes of this study were to investigate the muscle-tendon unit stiffness response and to compare the stiffness with those of other indirect markers induced by two bouts of unaccustomed eccentric exercise. Eleven untrained men performed two bouts of 200 maximal eccentric contractions of the right quadriceps 4 weeks apart. Changes in stiffness, pain evoked by stretching and pressure, plasma creatine kinase (CK) activity, and muscle thickness were followed for 7 days after each bout. Stiffness and pain peaked immediately and 1 day after the first exercise bout, whereas CK and thickness were highest 4 and 7 days after the first exercise bout, respectively (p < 0.05 for all). Muscular pain, thickness, and stiffness responses were lower by 53.3%, 99%, and 11.6%, respectively, after the repeated bout compared to after the first bout (p < 0.05 for all), while CK activity response did not differ significantly between bouts. High responders for an increase in muscle-tendon unit stiffness showed a repeated-bout effect for stiffness, pain, and CK activity (by 29%, 65%, and 98%, p < 0.05 for all), but the repeated-bout effect was not that clear in low responders. These findings suggest that a repeated eccentric exercise bout effect on stiffness in quadriceps is mostly not associated with muscle pain and CK activity, but there are large individual differences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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9 pages, 330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Real and Simulated Flights on Psychophysiological Response of Military Pilots

by Juan Pedro Fuentes-García, Vicente J. Clemente-Suárez, Miguel Ángel Marazuela-Martínez, José F. Tornero-Aguilera and Santos Villafaina

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(2), 787; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020787 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3245

Abstract

Objective: The present research aimed to analyse the autonomic, anxiety, perceived exertion, and self-confidence response during real and simulated flights. Methods: This cross-sectional study participated 12 experienced male pilots (age = 33.08 (5.21)) from the Spanish Air Force. Participants had to complete a [...] Read more.

Objective: The present research aimed to analyse the autonomic, anxiety, perceived exertion, and self-confidence response during real and simulated flights. Methods: This cross-sectional study participated 12 experienced male pilots (age = 33.08 (5.21)) from the Spanish Air Force. Participants had to complete a real and a simulated flight mission randomly. The heart rate variability (HRV), anxiety, self-confidence, and rating of perceived exertion were collected before and after both manoeuvres, and HRV was also collected during both simulated and real flights. Results: When studying the acute effects of real and simulated flights, the mean heart rate, the R-to-R interval, the cognitive anxiety and the perceived exertion were significantly impacted only by real flights. Furthermore, significant differences in the mean heart rate and RR interval were found when compared to the acute effects of real and simulated flights (with higher acute effects observed in real flights). Additionally, when compared the HRV values during simulated and real flights, significant differences were observed in the RR and heart rate mean (with lower RR interval and higher heart rate mean observed during real flights). Conclusion: Real flights significantly reduced the RR interval and cognitive anxiety while increased the heart rate mean and the rating of perceived exertion, whereas simulated flights did not induce any significant change in the autonomic modulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

14 pages, 741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Body Composition in International Sprint Swimmers: Are There Any Relations with Performance?

by Milivoj Dopsaj, Ilona Judita Zuoziene, Radoje Milić, Evgeni Cherepov, Vadim Erlikh, Nerijus Masiulis, Andrea di Nino and Janez Vodičar

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(24), 9464; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249464 - 17 Dec 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5452

Abstract

The paper addresses relations between the characteristics of body composition in international sprint swimmers and sprint performance. The research included 82 swimmers of international level (N = 46 male and N = 36 female athletes) from 8 countries. We measured body composition using [...] Read more.

The paper addresses relations between the characteristics of body composition in international sprint swimmers and sprint performance. The research included 82 swimmers of international level (N = 46 male and N = 36 female athletes) from 8 countries. We measured body composition using multifrequency bioelectrical impedance methods with “InBody 720” device. In the case of male swimmers, it was established that the most important statistically significant correlation with sprint performance is seen in variables, which define the quantitative relationship between their fat and muscle with the contractile potential of the body (Protein-Fat Index, r = 0.392, p = 0.007; Index of Body Composition, r = 0.392, p = 0.007; Percent of Skeletal Muscle Mass, r = 0.392, p = 0.016). In the case of female athletes, statistically significant relations with sprint performance were established for variables that define the absolute and relative amount of a contractile component in the body, but also with the variables that define the structure of body fat characteristics (Percent of Skeletal Muscle Mass, r = 0.732, p = 0.000; Free Fat Mass, r = 0.702, p = 0.000; Fat Mass Index, r = −0.642, p = 0.000; Percent of Body Fat, r = −0.621, p = 0.000). Using Multiple Regression Analysis, we managed to predict swimming performance of sprint swimmers with the help of body composition variables, where the models defined explained 35.1 and 75.1% of the mutual variability of performance, for male and female swimmers, respectively. This data clearly demonstrate the importance of body composition control in sprint swimmers as a valuable method for monitoring the efficiency of body adaptation to training process in order to optimize competitive performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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12 pages, 1395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Eccentric Single-Leg Decline Squat Exercise on the Morphological and Structural Properties of the Vastus Lateralis and Patellar Tendon

by Pablo Abián, Fernando Martínez, Fernando Jiménez and Javier Abián-Vicén

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(24), 9410; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249410 - 15 Dec 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3366

Abstract

The purpose was to examine the effect of 6-week eccentric single-leg decline squat (SLDSe) training with two technical execution times (3 s or 6 s) on changes related to the structural properties of the vastus lateralis (VL) and patellar tendon (PT). Thirty-six physical [...] Read more.

The purpose was to examine the effect of 6-week eccentric single-leg decline squat (SLDSe) training with two technical execution times (3 s or 6 s) on changes related to the structural properties of the vastus lateralis (VL) and patellar tendon (PT). Thirty-six physical active volunteers were randomly divided into three groups: control group (CG, n = 13, age = 20.8 ± 1.9 years, no intervention program), experimental group 1 (EG1, n = 11, age = 21.6 ± 2.5 years, execution time = 6 s) and experimental group 2 (EG2, n = 12, 21.1 ± 1.2 years, execution time = 3 s). Participants completed a 6-week SLDSe training program (80% of 1-RM) three days a week. The structural characteristics of the VL and the PT were measured with ultrasonography before and after 6-week SLDSe training and after 6 weeks of de-training. Our results indicate that EG1 increased ≈21.8% the thickness of the PT and EG2 increased ≈15.7% the thickness of the VL after the 6-week intervention program. EG1 and EG2 showed greater values (p < 0.05) of lean mass and lower values (p < 0.05) of fat percentage on the thigh after the intervention program. In conclusion, the SLDSe training carried out with the execution time of 6 s had greater effects on the structural and elastic properties of the PT, and the exercise with the execution time of 3 s caused greater structural adaptations in the VL musculature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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11 pages, 1526 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Balance and Sand Training on Postural Control in Elite Beach Volleyball Players

by Sergio Sebastia-Amat, Luca Paolo Ardigò, Jose Manuel Jimenez-Olmedo, Basilio Pueo and Alfonso Penichet-Tomas

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(23), 8981; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238981 - 2 Dec 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3621

Abstract

The aim of this work was to evaluate the effectiveness of a 12-week-long balance training program on the postural control of elite male beach volleyball players and the effect on balance when swapping to specific sports training in the sand in the following [...] Read more.

The aim of this work was to evaluate the effectiveness of a 12-week-long balance training program on the postural control of elite male beach volleyball players and the effect on balance when swapping to specific sports training in the sand in the following 12 weeks. Six elite players were tested before and after the balance training program and also 12 weeks after the balance training had finished. To this aim, a pressure platform was used to collect the following center of pressure parameters: path length, speed, mean position, and root-mean-square amplitude in the medial-lateral and anteroposterior planes. Romberg quotients for the center of pressure parameters were also calculated. The results of the present study showed better static postural control after specific balance training: smaller path length and speed under open eyes condition in dominant (p = 0.015; p = 0.009, respectively) and non-dominant monopedal stances (p = 0.005; p = 0.004, respectively). Contrastingly, 12 weeks after the balance training program, the path length and speed values under open eyes condition in bipedal stance increased significantly (p = 0.045; p = 0.004, respectively) for sand training. According to our results, balance training is effective to achieve positive balance test scores. It is speculated, and yet to be proven, that sand training could be effective to improve dynamic and open eyes postural control during beach volleyball practice. In beach volleyball players, a balance training program is effective to develop static balance but the effect of ecological sand training on dynamic performance deserves specific investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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15 pages, 477 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance and Training Load Profiles in Recreational Male Trail Runners: Analyzing Their Interactions during Competitions

by Sérgio Matos, Filipe Manuel Clemente, Rui Silva, Joel Pereira and José María Cancela Carral

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(23), 8902; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238902 - 30 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3132

Abstract

Endurance sports like trail running constitute an extensive individual modality causing numerous physiological changes to occur in the athlete. In this sense, an adequate monitoring of training load appears to be essential to improve competition performance. The aim of this study was two-fold: [...] Read more.

Endurance sports like trail running constitute an extensive individual modality causing numerous physiological changes to occur in the athlete. In this sense, an adequate monitoring of training load appears to be essential to improve competition performance. The aim of this study was two-fold: (i) to analyze trail runners’ weekly load variations in the four weeks leading up to a trail running competition, and (ii) to determine the relationship between the runners’ pacing in competitions and their physical fitness and workload parameters. Twenty-five amateur male trail runners (age: 36.23 ± 8.30 years old; minimum International Trail Running Association performance index: 600) were monitored daily for the duration of a season (52 weeks). External load (distance covered, pace) and internal load (rate of perceived exertion) were measured daily. Additionally, weekly workload measures of acute:chronic workload ratio (ACWR), training monotony, and training strain were calculated. The runners were also assessed for maximal aerobic speed (MAS) every four months. No significant differences in workload measures (p > 0.05) were observed in the four weeks leading up to each short trail competition; however, leading up to the long trail, ultra-trail medium, and ultra-trail long/extra-long competitions, the differences in the runners’ workload measures were significant (p < 0.05). In the short trail, pace was found to be moderately correlated with the ACWR of total distance (r = −0.334) and with training monotony of rate of perceived exertion (RPE) (r = −0.303). In the ultra-trail, a large correlation was observed between pace and elevation accumulated (r = 0.677). We concluded that significant workload differences from one week to the next only occurred in preparation for longer-distance competitions, with sudden acute load decreases and very low ACWR values reported mainly in weeks 1 and 2 of the taper. Meaningful relationships were found between performance (pace) and MAS for longer trails and between pace and MAS for ultra-trail competitions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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11 pages, 1401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Verbal Encouragement on Psychophysiological and Affective Responses during Small-Sided Games

by Hajer Sahli, Okba Selmi, Makrem Zghibi, Lee Hill, Thomas Rosemann, Beat Knechtle and Filipe Manuel Clemente

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(23), 8884; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238884 - 29 Nov 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4097

Abstract

Verbal encouragement (VE) is considered as external motivation provided by physical education teacher. For this reason, this study aimed to examine the effects of VE on psychophysiological and affective responses during small-sided games (SSG). Sixteen male school students (age: 17.37 ± 0.48 years) [...] Read more.

Verbal encouragement (VE) is considered as external motivation provided by physical education teacher. For this reason, this study aimed to examine the effects of VE on psychophysiological and affective responses during small-sided games (SSG). Sixteen male school students (age: 17.37 ± 0.48 years) completed four sessions of a 4-a-side SSG. Two sessions occurred with VE (SSGE), and two sessions did not include VE (SSGNE). Heart rate was continuously recorded, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and blood lactate concentration ([La]b) were measured after each training session. Physical enjoyment was assessed after each protocol. Mood state was recorded before and after each training session using the profile of mood-state. HR max, [La]b, RPE, Physical enjoyment, and vigor were higher in SSGE compared to SSGNE (all, p < 0.001). The SSGE and SSGNE resulted in a decreased total mood disturbance (TMD) (p = 0.001, ES = 0.60; p = 0.04, ES = 0.33, respectively) and tension (p < 0.001, ES = 0.91; p = 0.004, ES = 0.47, respectively), and the vigor was increased after the SSGE (p < 0.001, ES = 0.76). SSGE and SSGNE induce similar improvement in TMD and tension. However, SSGE induced higher physiological responses, RPE, enjoyment, and positive mood than SSGNE. Physical education teachers could use VE during specific soccer sessions to improve physical aspects, enjoyment, and mood in participants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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12 pages, 2126 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Athlete-Specific Neural Strategies under Pressure: A fNIRS Pilot Study

by Inchon Park, Youngsook Kim and Seung Kyum Kim

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(22), 8464; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228464 - 16 Nov 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2857

Abstract

(1) Background: Stress and pressure during competition and training impair athletes’ performance in sports. However, the influence of mental stress on the prefrontal cortex (PFC) functioning in an athlete during the visual simulation task is unknown. The purpose of this pilot study was [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Stress and pressure during competition and training impair athletes’ performance in sports. However, the influence of mental stress on the prefrontal cortex (PFC) functioning in an athlete during the visual simulation task is unknown. The purpose of this pilot study was to investigate hemodynamic responses during the visual-simulation task that induces pressure and stress using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. (2) Methods: Ten archers and ten non-athlete collegiate students performed a visual-simulation task. Participants’ current stress levels were collected using a visual analog scale before and after the task. Average oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO), deoxygenated hemoglobin (HbR), and total hemoglobin (HbT) levels and their variability (standard deviation (SD) HbO, SD HbR, and SD HbT) were computed to compare the neural efficiency between athlete and non-athlete. (3) Results: In general, both groups exhibited increased stress levels after the simulation task, and there was no group difference in overall average hemodynamic response from PFC and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). While the average hemodynamic response level did not differ between groups, variability in hemodynamic responses from the archer group showed a more stable pattern than the non-athlete group. (4) Conclusion: Under this experimental setting, decreasing the variability in hemodynamic responses during the visual simulation, potentially via stabilizing the fluctuation of PFC, was characterized by the stress-related compensatory neural strategy of elite archers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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10 pages, 669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Caregiver Burden in Informal Caregivers for the Elderly in Ecuador

by Pablo Ruisoto, Marina Ramírez, Belén Paladines-Costa, Silvia Vaca and Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(19), 7338; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197338 - 8 Oct 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4580

Abstract

Informal caregivers are the main providers of care for the elderly. The aim of this study is to examine the predictive value of different variables regarding caregivers and their elderly patients with respect to the caregiver’s burden. A convenience sample of 688 informal [...] Read more.

Informal caregivers are the main providers of care for the elderly. The aim of this study is to examine the predictive value of different variables regarding caregivers and their elderly patients with respect to the caregiver’s burden. A convenience sample of 688 informal caregivers and 688 elderly people from Ecuador was surveyed. Only households with one caregiver and one elderly person were considered for the study. For informal caregivers, the following standardized measures were obtained: burden (Zarit Burden Interview), neuroticism (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised-Abbreviated, EPQR-A), caregiver’s general health (GHQ-12), and social support (modified Duke-UNC Functional Social Support Questionnaire, FSSQ11). For the elderly, we employed standardized measures of cognitive function (short portable mental status questionnaire, SPMSQ), Pfeiffer’s test, and functional dependency (Barthel scale/Index, BI). Females were over-represented in caregiving and reported significantly higher burden levels than those of males. In both male and female caregivers, the burden was best predicted by the time of caring, neuroticism, and elderly cognitive impairment. However, some predictors of burden were weighted differently in males and females. The functional independence of the elderly was a significant predictor of burden for male caregivers but not females, while caregiver competence was a significant predictor for females but not males. These variables accounted for more than 88% of the variability in informal caregivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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11 pages, 491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hematological and Running Performance Modification of Trained Athletes after Reverse vs. Block Training Periodization

by Juan Pablo Gómez Martín, Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez and Domingo Jesús Ramos-Campo

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(13), 4825; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134825 - 4 Jul 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3944

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to analyze the effect of block (BP) and a reverse training periodization (RP) in the hematological and running performance of amateur trained athletes. Modifications in hematological, aerobic, and anaerobic running performance and countermovement jump before and [...] Read more.

The aim of the present study was to analyze the effect of block (BP) and a reverse training periodization (RP) in the hematological and running performance of amateur trained athletes. Modifications in hematological, aerobic, and anaerobic running performance and countermovement jump before and after twelve weeks of BP vs. RP training programs were analyzed in 16 trained athletes (eight males: 40.0 ± 6.2 years; 179.2 ± 12.8 cm; 73.8 ± 12.2 kg; and eight females: 34.2 ± 4.1 years; 163.4 ± 9.6 cm; 57.0 ± 11.0 kg). A significant decrease in heart rate (HR) at ventilatory threshold (VT1) (p = 0.031; ES = 1.40) was observed in RP without changes in BP. In addition, RP increased significantly VO₂max (p = 0.004; ES = 0.47), speed at VO₂max (p = 0.001; ES = 1.07), HR at VT2 (p < 0.001; ES = 1.32) and VT1 (p = 0.046; ES = 0.57), while BP improved VO₂max (p = 0.004; ES = 0.51), speed at VO₂max (p = 0.016; ES = 0.92), and HR at VT2 (p = 0.023; ES = 0.78). In addition, only RP increased anaerobic performance in a running-based anaerobic sprint test (RAST) (mean sprint: p = 0.009; ES = 0.40, best sprint: p = 0.019; ES = 0.30 and total time: p = 0.009; ES = 0.40). Moreover, both types of training periodization proposed in this study maintained hematological values and efficiently improved jump performance (p = 0.044; ES = 0.6) in RP and p = 0.001; ES = 0.75 in BP). Therefore, twelve weeks of either RP or BP is an effective strategy to increase jump and aerobic running performance maintaining hematological values, but only RP increases anaerobic running performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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14 pages, 1634 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Exercise Recovery of Ultra-Short-Term Heart Rate Variability after Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test and Repeated Sprint Ability Test

by Chin-Hwai Hung, Filipe Manuel Clemente, Pedro Bezerra, Yi-Wen Chiu, Chia-Hua Chien, Zachary Crowley-McHattan and Yung-Sheng Chen

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(11), 4070; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17114070 - 7 Jun 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3950

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the agreement and acceptance of ultra-short-term heart rate (HR) variability (HRV_UST) measures during post-exercise recovery in college football players. Twenty-five male college football players (age: 19.80 ± 1.08 years) from the first division of national university [...] Read more.

This study aimed to examine the agreement and acceptance of ultra-short-term heart rate (HR) variability (HRV_UST) measures during post-exercise recovery in college football players. Twenty-five male college football players (age: 19.80 ± 1.08 years) from the first division of national university championship voluntarily participated in the study. The participants completed both a repeated sprint ability test (RSA) and a Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (YYIR1) in a randomized order and separated by 7 days. Electrocardiographic signals (ECG) were recorded in a supine position 10 min before and 30 min after the exercise protocols. The HR and HRV data were analyzed in the time segments of baseline 5~10 min (Baseline), post-exercise 0~5 min (Post 1), post-exercise 5~10 min (Post 2), and post-exercise 25~30 min (Post 3). The natural logarithm of the standard deviation of normal-to-normal intervals (LnSDNN), root mean square of successive normal-to-normal interval differences (LnRMSSD), and LnSDNN:LnRMSSD ratio was compared in the 1st min HRV_UST and 5-min criterion (HRV_criterion) of each time segment. The correlation of time-domain HRV variables to 5-min natural logarithm of low frequency power (LnLF) and high frequency power (LnHF), and LF:HF ratio were calculated. The results showed that the HRV_UST of LnSDNN, LnRMSSD, and LnSDNN:LnRMSSD ratio showed trivial to small effect sizes (ES) (−0.00~0.49), very large and nearly perfect interclass correlation coefficients (ICC) (0.74~0.95), and relatively small values of bias (RSA: 0.01~−0.12; YYIR1: −0.01~−0.16) to the HRV_criterion in both exercise protocols. In addition, the HRV_UST of LnLF, LnHF, and LnLF:LnHF showed trivial to small ES (−0.04~−0.54), small to large ICC (−0.02~0.68), and relatively small values of bias (RSA: −0.02~0.65; YYIR1: 0.03~−0.23) to the HRV_criterion in both exercise protocols. Lastly, the 1-min LnSDNN:LnRMSSD ratio was significantly correlated to the 5-min LnLF:LnHF ratio with moderate~high level (r = 0.43~0.72; p < 0.05) during 30-min post-exercise recovery. The post-exercise 1-min HRV assessment in LnSDNN, LnRMSSD, and LnSDNN:LnRMSSD ratio was acceptable and accurate in the RSA and YYIR1 tests, compared to the 5-min time segment of measurement. The moderate to high correlation coefficient of the HRV_UST LnSDNN:LnRMSSD ratio to the HRV_criterion LnLF:LnHF ratio indicated the capacity to facilitate the post-exercise shortening duration of HRV measurement after maximal anaerobic or aerobic shuttle running. Using ultra-short-term record of LnSDNN:LnRMSSD ratio as a surrogate for standard measure of LnLF:LnHF ratio after short-term bouts of maximal intensity field-based shuttle running is warranted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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10 pages, 1934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can the Performance Gap between Women and Men be Reduced in Ultra-Cycling?

by Sabrina Baumgartner, Caio Victor Sousa, Pantelis T. Nikolaidis and Beat Knechtle

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(7), 2521; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072521 - 7 Apr 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3890

Abstract

This study examined a large dataset of ultra-cycling race results to investigate the sex difference in ultra-cycling performance (100 to 500 miles) according to age and race distance. Data from the time period 1996–2018 were obtained from online available database of the ultra-cycling [...] Read more.

This study examined a large dataset of ultra-cycling race results to investigate the sex difference in ultra-cycling performance (100 to 500 miles) according to age and race distance. Data from the time period 1996–2018 were obtained from online available database of the ultra-cycling marathon association (UMCA), including distance-limited ultra-cycling races (100, 200, 400, and 500 miles). A total of 12,716 race results were analyzed to compare the performance between men and women by calendar year, age group (18–34, 35–44, 45–59, and 60+ years), and race distance. Men were faster than women in 100 and 200 mile races, but no sex differences were identified for the 400 and 500 mile races. The performance ratio (average cycling speed_men/average cycling speed_women) was smaller in the 200 mile races compared to the 100 mile races and remained stable in the 400 and 500 mile races. In all race distances, the difference in average cycling speed between women and men decreased with increasing age. The gender gap in performance was closed in several distance-limited ultra-cycling races, such as the 400 and 500 mile races. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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11 pages, 1472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Age-Related Performance Decline in Ironman 70.3

by Kristian Jäckel, Caio Victor Sousa, Elias Villiger, Pantelis T. Nikolaidis and Beat Knechtle

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(6), 2148; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062148 - 24 Mar 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3819

Abstract

Although the age-related decline in sport events has been well studied, little is known on such a decline in recreational triathletes for the Half Ironman distance. Indeed, the few existing studies concentrated on specific aspects such as top events, elite groups, some consecutive [...] Read more.

Although the age-related decline in sport events has been well studied, little is known on such a decline in recreational triathletes for the Half Ironman distance. Indeed, the few existing studies concentrated on specific aspects such as top events, elite groups, some consecutive years, single locations, or age categories instead of analyzing all the data available. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine recreational triathletes’ performance in three split disciplines (swimming, cycling, and running) as well as in overall race time by analyzing all data of Half Ironman finishers found on ironman.com (i.e., 690 races; years 2004 through 2018; 206,524 women (24.6%) and 633,576 men (75.4%), in total 840,100 athletes). The age-dependent decline in Half Ironman started earliest in swimming (from the very first age group on) with a smallest age group delta between 35–49 years in men and 40–54 years in women. The performance decline started at 26 and 28 years in men and women for running; at 34 years for men and 35 years for women in cycling; and at 32 years for men and 31 years for women with regard to overall race time. The results may be used by coaches and recreational athletes alike to plan a triathlon career. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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9 pages, 917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tower Running—Participation, Performance Trends, and Sex Difference

by Daniel Stark, Stefania Di Gangi, Caio Victor Sousa, Pantelis Nikolaidis and Beat Knechtle

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(6), 1902; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17061902 - 14 Mar 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3608

Abstract

Though there are exhaustive data about participation, performance trends, and sex differences in performance in different running disciplines and races, no study has analyzed these trends in stair climbing and tower running. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate these [...] Read more.

Though there are exhaustive data about participation, performance trends, and sex differences in performance in different running disciplines and races, no study has analyzed these trends in stair climbing and tower running. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate these trends in tower running. The data, consisting of 28,203 observations from 24,007 climbers between 2014 and 2019, were analyzed. The effects of sex and age, together with the tower characteristics (i.e., stairs and floors), were examined through a multivariable statistical model with random effects on intercept, at climber’s level, accounting for repeated measurements. Men were faster than women in each age group (p < 0.001 for ages ≤69 years, p = 0.003 for ages > 69 years), and the difference in performance stayed around 0.20 km/h, with a minimum of 0.17 at the oldest age. However, women were able to outperform men in specific situations: (i) in smaller buildings (<600 stairs), for ages between 30 and 59 years and >69 years; (ii) in higher buildings (>2200 stairs), for age groups <20 years and 60–69 years; and (iii) in buildings with 1600–2200 stairs, for ages >69 years. In summary, men were faster than women in this specific running discipline; however, women were able to outperform men in very specific situations (i.e., specific age groups and specific numbers of stairs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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12 pages, 1900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Psychobiological Changes during National Futsal Team Training Camps and Their Relationship with Training Load

by Filipe Manuel Clemente, Ana Filipa Silva, Hugo Sarmento, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo, Yi-Wen Chiu, Yu-Xian Lu, Pedro Bezerra and Yung-Sheng Chen

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(6), 1843; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17061843 - 12 Mar 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3223

Abstract

The aim of this study was two-fold: (1) to analyze the within-week variations of heart rate, session-rated of perceived exertion (sRPE), total distance, distance in 8.0–11.99 km/h⁻¹, recovery distance in 12.0–17.99 km/h⁻¹, distance in >18.0 km/h⁻¹, maximum [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was two-fold: (1) to analyze the within-week variations of heart rate, session-rated of perceived exertion (sRPE), total distance, distance in 8.0–11.99 km/h⁻¹, recovery distance in 12.0–17.99 km/h⁻¹, distance in >18.0 km/h⁻¹, maximum speed, number of sprints, heart rate variability, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and fatigue during training camps of a national futsal team; and (2) to analyze the relationships between load and the well-being. Twenty-eight men from the Chinese Taipei U−20 national futsal team were analyzed. Comparisons of training days revealed that the total distance was significantly smaller on day 1 (d = −1.22) and day 6 (d = −1.95) than on day 3. The sRPE values were significantly lower on day 1 than days 4 (d = −1.53), 5 (d = −2.07), and 6 (d = −2.59). The relationships between training load and recovery parameters revealed moderate correlations between the DOMS and the sRPE recorded one (r = −0.321) and two days before training (r = −0.289). It is possible conclude that first day imposed a smaller external load and internal load, and that the internal load had a greater dependent relationship with reported DOMS and fatigue during the training camps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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17 pages, 2129 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Supplementation with a Bioactive Melon Concentrate in Humans and Animals: Prevention of Oxidative Damages and Fatigue in the Context of a Moderate or Eccentric Physical Activity

by Marion Saby, Audrey Gauthier, Sandy Barial, Laure Egoumenides and Bernard Jover

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1142; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041142 - 11 Feb 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3908

Abstract

Exercise is recognized to provide both physical and psychological health benefits. However, oxidative stress can occur and induce muscular damages. SOD B^®; M is a melon concentrate, well known to counteract oxidative stress and prevent its side effects. The present study [...] Read more.

Exercise is recognized to provide both physical and psychological health benefits. However, oxidative stress can occur and induce muscular damages. SOD B^®; M is a melon concentrate, well known to counteract oxidative stress and prevent its side effects. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential of the melon concentrate in the context of both a strong and isolated effort associated with deleterious effects, and a moderate and regular physical activity considered as beneficial. First, a preclinical study was set up on rats to evaluate its potential on the prevention of damages induced by an eccentric exercise. Secondly, the combined effect of the melon concentrate and a regular standardized physical training was studied on the overall physical condition of healthy subjects in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Repeated measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), student’s t test and Mann–Whitney test were used for statistical analyses. Melon concentrate helped to prevent gastrocnemius damages induced by the eccentric exercise. It allowed a reduction of fibrosis by approximately 38% and a reduction of Tumor Necrosis Factor- α (TNF-α) plasma level by 28%. This supplementation also induced a rearrangement of myosin fibers and an increase in PGC-1α plasma level. In the clinical study, melon concentrate was able to decrease oxidative stress and C-Reactive protein (CRP) plasma level. Besides, magnesium (Mg) plasma level was higher in the context of a regular training performed by healthy subjects supplemented with the melon concentrate. Therefore, the melon concentrate allowed a better adaptation to effort linked to PGC-1α activation: a regulator of energy metabolism. The antioxidant properties of the melon concentrate and its ability to mobilize magnesium also suggest that the supplementation could induce a better resistance to fatigue and recovery during regular physical activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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13 pages, 3937 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seven Weeks of Jump Training with Superimposed Whole-Body Electromyostimulation Does Not Affect the Physiological and Cellular Parameters of Endurance Performance in Amateur Soccer Players

by Nicolas Wirtz, André Filipovic, Sebastian Gehlert, Markus de Marées, Thorsten Schiffer, Wilhelm Bloch and Lars Donath

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(3), 1123; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031123 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4473

Abstract

Intramuscular density of monocarboxylate-transporter (MCT) could affect the ability to perform high amounts of fast and explosive actions during a soccer game. MCTs have been proven to be essential for lactate shuttling and pH regulation during exercise and can undergo notable adaptational changes [...] Read more.

Intramuscular density of monocarboxylate-transporter (MCT) could affect the ability to perform high amounts of fast and explosive actions during a soccer game. MCTs have been proven to be essential for lactate shuttling and pH regulation during exercise and can undergo notable adaptational changes depending on training. The aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence and direction of potential effects of a 7-weeks training period of jumps with superimposed whole-body electromyostimulation on soccer relevant performance surrogates and MCT density in soccer players. For this purpose, 30 amateur soccer players were randomly assigned to three groups. One group performed dynamic whole-body strength training including 3 x 10 squat jumps with WB-EMS (EG, n = 10) twice a week in addition to their daily soccer training routine. A jump training group (TG, n = 10) performed the same training routine without EMS, whereas a control group (CG, n = 8) merely performed their daily soccer routine. 2 (Time: pre vs. post) x 3 (group: EG, TG, CG) repeated measures analyses of variance (rANOVA) revealed neither a significant time, group nor interaction effect for VO₂peak, Total Time to Exhaustion and La_max as well as MCT-1 density. Due to a lack of task-specificity of the underlying training stimuli, we conclude that seven weeks of WB-EMS superimposed to jump exercise twice a week does not relevantly influence aerobic performance or MCT density. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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14 pages, 366 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mental Recovery and Running-Related Injuries in Recreational Runners: The Moderating Role of Passion for Running

by Jan de Jonge, Yannick A. Balk and Toon W. Taris

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(3), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031044 - 6 Feb 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 11832

Abstract

This pilot study investigates the moderating role of passion for running in the relation between mental recovery from running and running-related injuries (RRIs). We predict that the relation between recovery and injuries is dependent on the level of passion. A cross-sectional survey study [...] Read more.

This pilot study investigates the moderating role of passion for running in the relation between mental recovery from running and running-related injuries (RRIs). We predict that the relation between recovery and injuries is dependent on the level of passion. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted among 246 Dutch recreational runners. Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that the negative association between mental recovery after running and RRIs is moderated (i.e., strengthened) by harmonious passion. Put differently, runners who are able to mentally recover well after running were less likely to report RRIs in the case of harmonious passion. Additionally, findings demonstrated that obsessively passionate runners were more likely to report RRIs. Passionate runners may benefit from education programs to help them integrate running more harmoniously with other aspects of life, and to prevent injuries. In addition, they should be educated about the crucial role of appropriate mental recovery from running. Considering mental aspects in running such as mental recovery from running and passion for running seems to be worthwhile to gain a better understanding of the incidence and/or prevalence of RRIs. Future (quasi-experimental) studies should investigate the issues raised here more profoundly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

8 pages, 1478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Perceived Exertion in Elite Soccer Players during Official Matches According to Situational Factors

by Javier Raya-González, Daniel Castillo, Javier Yanci and Asier Los Arcos

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(2), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020410 - 8 Jan 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2582

Abstract

This study aimed to assess the match perceived exertion (PE) declared by starter and non-starter junior elite soccer players, according to the level of the opponents, and by playing at home or away. Nineteen young soccer players who competed in the Spanish U19 [...] Read more.

This study aimed to assess the match perceived exertion (PE) declared by starter and non-starter junior elite soccer players, according to the level of the opponents, and by playing at home or away. Nineteen young soccer players who competed in the Spanish U19 League participated in this study. PE was registered during the entire regular season (30 official matches). Players were grouped by match playing time: starters (players who started the game and played at least 45 min) and non-starters (substitute players who participated for less than 45 min). Moreover, the matches were classified according to the opponent level (i.e., high, medium, or low) and the match location (i.e., home or away). Starters who competed against high-level opponents (8.7 ± 0.6) declared higher PE ratings than against medium (8.1 ± 0.7, p < 0.01) and low (8.4 ± 0.7, p < 0.01) level opponents. In addition, starters competing at home declared lower PE ratings than when playing away (8.2 ± 0.8 vs. 8.5 ± 0.6, p < 0.01). However, no significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed for non-starters. Coaches should consider not only tactical–strategic needs, but also these contextual factors when managing the match playing time of the starter players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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8 pages, 502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Psychoneuroendocrine Stress Responses of High-Level Swimmers Depending on Autocratic and Democratic Coaching Style

by Manuel Jiménez, Manuel Fernández-Navas, José Ramón Alvero-Cruz, Jerónimo García-Romero, Virginia García-Coll, Iván Rivilla and Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(24), 5089; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245089 - 13 Dec 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7984

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to analyse differences in the psychoneuroendocrine stress responses of high-level, young swimmers depending on whether an autocratic and democratic coaching style was applied. Modifications in cortisol and the motivational climate of 18 young swimmers (15.3 ± [...] Read more.

The aim of the present study was to analyse differences in the psychoneuroendocrine stress responses of high-level, young swimmers depending on whether an autocratic and democratic coaching style was applied. Modifications in cortisol and the motivational climate of 18 young swimmers (15.3 ± 1.86 years, 10 females and 8 males) were analysed before and after two training sessions with equivalent training loads but directed by two coaches applying different approaches, i.e., autocratic (A) and democratic (D). The basal testosterone levels of the coaches were also assessed. The basal testosterone concentration was higher in coach A than in coach D; the athletes perceived them as autocratic and democratic, respectively. Swimmers under coach A’s instructions showed higher cortisol levels, suggesting higher cortisol production related to coaching style. Furthermore, differences in the motivational climate concerning ego (i.e., athletes comparing their ability with that of other athletes) were observed with coach A, whereas differences in motivational climate concerning the task (i.e., athletes comparing their ability with their own past performance) were observed with coach D. Cognitive variables showed negative perceptions affecting athletes’ training experience and performance when they were screamed at or insulted by coach A. There were no gender or age differences in cortisol production or motivational climate. In conclusion, this study suggests that an autocratic coaching style modulates cortisol release in both genders, affecting young elite swimmers’ motivational climate and training experience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

20 pages, 4640 KiB

Open AccessReview

Applying Heart Rate Variability to Monitor Health and Performance in Tactical Personnel: A Narrative Review

by Mark D. Stephenson, Andrew G. Thompson, Justin J. Merrigan, Jason D. Stone and Joshua A. Hagen

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 8143; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158143 - 31 Jul 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6630

Abstract

Human performance optimization of tactical personnel requires accurate, meticulous, and effective monitoring of biological adaptations and systemic recovery. Due to an increased understanding of its importance and the commercial availability of assessment tools, the use of heart rate variability (HRV) to address this [...] Read more.

Human performance optimization of tactical personnel requires accurate, meticulous, and effective monitoring of biological adaptations and systemic recovery. Due to an increased understanding of its importance and the commercial availability of assessment tools, the use of heart rate variability (HRV) to address this need is becoming more common in the tactical community. Measuring HRV is a non-invasive, practical method for objectively assessing a performer’s readiness, workload, and recovery status; when combined with additional data sources and practitioner input, it provides an affordable and scalable solution for gaining actionable information to support the facilitation and maintenance of operational performance. This narrative review discusses the non-clinical use of HRV for assessing, monitoring, and interpreting autonomic nervous system resource availability, modulation, effectiveness, and efficiency in tactical populations. Broadly, HRV metrics represent a complex series of interactions resulting from internal and external stimuli; therefore, a general overview of HRV applications in tactical personnel is discussed, including the influence of occupational specific demands, interactions between cognitive and physical domains, and recommendations on implementing HRV for training and recovery insights into critical health and performance outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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23 pages, 1824 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Plyometric Jump Training in Female Soccer Player’s Physical Fitness: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

by Mario Sánchez, Javier Sanchez-Sanchez, Fabio Y. Nakamura, Filipe M. Clemente, Blanca Romero-Moraleda and Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(23), 8911; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238911 - 30 Nov 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6056

Abstract

We aimed to assess the effects of plyometric jump training (PJT) on female soccer player’s physical fitness. To this aim, a systematic review with meta-analysis (SRMA) was conducted. The electronic databases PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and SCOPUS were used. To qualify for [...] Read more.

We aimed to assess the effects of plyometric jump training (PJT) on female soccer player’s physical fitness. To this aim, a systematic review with meta-analysis (SRMA) was conducted. The electronic databases PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and SCOPUS were used. To qualify for inclusion, peer-reviewed studies must have included (i) a PJT programme of ≥2 weeks, (ii) healthy athletes, (iii) a control group, and (iv) physical fitness outcomes (e.g., jump; sprint). Studies were excluded if (i) they incorporated injuried female soccer players, (ii) did not involve PJT or an active control group, (iv) lack of baseline and/or follow-up data. Data was meta-analyzed using the inverse variance random-effects model. Ten moderate-to-high quality studies were included in the analyses, comprising 13 training groups (n = 140) and 10 control groups (n = 110). Small to large (ES = 0.60–2.24; p = 0.040 to <0.001) effects were noted for countermovement jump, drop jump, kicking performance, linear sprint, change of direction speed, and endurance. The moderator analyses (i.e., PJT duration, age groups, competitive level, and soccer experience) revealed no significant differences between groups. In conclusion, PJT may improve the physical fitness of female soccer players. Such improvements might be expected after PJT interventions with six or more weeks of duration, and in players with different chronological ages, competitive levels and soccer experience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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17 pages, 362 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sex Differences in Swimming Disciplines—Can Women Outperform Men in Swimming?

by Beat Knechtle, Athanasios A. Dalamitros, Tiago M. Barbosa, Caio Victor Sousa, Thomas Rosemann and Pantelis Theo Nikolaidis

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(10), 3651; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103651 - 22 May 2020

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 22974

Abstract

In recent years, the interest of female dominance in long-distance swimming has grown where several newspaper articles have been published speculating about female performance and dominance—especially in open-water ultra-distance swimming. The aim of this narrative review is to review the scientific literature regarding [...] Read more.

In recent years, the interest of female dominance in long-distance swimming has grown where several newspaper articles have been published speculating about female performance and dominance—especially in open-water ultra-distance swimming. The aim of this narrative review is to review the scientific literature regarding the difference between the sexes for all swimming strokes (i.e., butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle and individual medley), different distances (i.e., from sprint to ultra-distances), extreme conditions (i.e., cold water), different ages and swimming integrated in multi-sports disciplines, such as triathlon, in various age groups and over calendar years. The influence of various physiological, psychological, anthropometrical and biomechanical aspects to potentially explain the female dominance was also discussed. The data bases Scopus and PUBMED were searched by April 2020 for the terms ’sex–difference–swimming’. Long-distance open-water swimmers and pool swimmers of different ages and performance levels were mainly investigated. In open-water long-distance swimming events of the ’Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming’ with the ’Catalina Channel Swim’, the ’English Channel Swim’ and the ’Manhattan Island Marathon Swim’, women were about 0.06 km/h faster than men. In master swimmers (i.e., age groups 25–29 to 90–94 years) competing in the FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation) World Championships in pool swimming in freestyle, backstroke, butterfly, breaststroke, individual medley and in 3000-m open-water swimming, women master swimmers appeared able to achieve similar performances as men in the oldest age groups (i.e., older than 75–80 years). In boys and girls aged 5–18 years—and listed in the all-time top 100 U.S. freestyle swimming performances from 50 m to 1500 m—the five fastest girls were faster than the five fastest boys until the age of ~10 years. After the age of 10 years, and until the age of 17 years, however, boys were increasingly faster than girls. Therefore, women tended to decrease the existing sex differences in specific age groups (i.e., younger than 10 years and older than 75–80 years) and swimming strokes in pool-swimming or even to overperform men in long-distance open-water swimming (distance of ~30 km), especially under extreme weather conditions (water colder than ~20 °C). Two main variables may explain why women can swim faster than men in open-water swimming events: (i) the long distance of around 30 km, (ii) and water colder than ~20 °C. Future studies may investigate more detailed (e.g., anthropometry) the very young (<10 years) and very old (>75–80 years) age groups in swimming Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

Other

Jump to: Research, Review

14 pages, 1116 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Self-Selected Pacing During a World Record Attempt in 40 Ironman-Distance Triathlons in 40 Days

by Caio Victor Sousa, Rinaldo Wellerson Pereira, Thomas Rosemann, Pantelis T. Nikolaidis and Beat Knechtle

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(7), 2390; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072390 - 1 Apr 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2914

Abstract

The present case study analyzed performance, pacing, and potential predictors in a self-paced world record attempt of a professional triathlete to finish 40 Ironman-distance triathlons within 40 days. Split times (i.e., swimming, cycling, running) and overall times, body weight, daily highest temperature, wind [...] Read more.

The present case study analyzed performance, pacing, and potential predictors in a self-paced world record attempt of a professional triathlete to finish 40 Ironman-distance triathlons within 40 days. Split times (i.e., swimming, cycling, running) and overall times, body weight, daily highest temperature, wind speed, energy expenditure, mean heart rate, and sleeping time were recorded. Non-linear regressions were applied to investigate changes in split and overall times across days. Multivariate regression analyses were performed to test which variables showed the greatest influence on the dependent variables cycling, running and overall time. The athlete completed the 40×Ironman distances in a total time of 444:22 h:min. He spent 50:26 h:min in swimming, 245:37 h:min in cycling, 137:17 h:min in running and 11:02 h:min in transition times. Swimming and cycling times became slower across days, whereas running times got faster until the 20th day and, thereafter, became slower until the 40th day. Overall times got slower until the 15th day, became faster to 31st, and started then to get slower until the end. Wind speed, previous day’s race time and average heart race during cycling were significant independent variables influencing cycling time. Body weight and average heart rate during running were significant independent variables influencing running performance. Cycling performance, running performance, and body weight were significant independent variables influencing overall time. In summary, running time was influenced by body weight, cycling by wind speed, and overall time by both running and cycling performances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress and Training Load Effects on Recovery, Well-Being and Sports Performance)

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