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Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (3 April 2023) | Viewed by 23704

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Dr. Tomasz Gabryś

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1. Physical Education and Sport Center University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic
2. Faculty of Health Sciences Jan Dlugosz University Czestochowa, Czestochowa, Poland
Interests: winter sports training; physiology of exercise; testing and prevention in sport
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Dr. Arkadiusz Stanula

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Institute of Sport Science, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland
Interests: swimming; water rescue; physiological testing; sports training; analysis in sports
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Prof. Dr. Zbigniew Waśkiewicz

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Institute of Sport Science, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland
Interests: running; ultra-marathons; sports training; team sports
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Winter sports as a form of exercise are of great significance and must be examined not only due to their environmental impact, but also due to the way they can affect the health of those who practice them, who are often exposed to altitude hypoxia and cold. Thankfully, the great variety of winter sports gives researchers varied opportunities to carry out methodological, physiological, biochemical, and psychological analyses. An important element used to optimize the training process in the long term is the medical aspect of winter sports training. The purpose of this Special Edition is to collect scientific publications presenting the results of research in relation to the environmental and health conditions of preparation of winter sports participants. We also encourage authors to send review articles on the current state of knowledge in this field. Topics of interest include but are not limited to:

Physiological and psychological testing methods that monitor the health and performance of winter sports participants;
Strategies for the prevention of overloads and the use of physiotherapeutic procedures;
Diagnostics and recording of training activity in various environmental conditions;
Etiology of injuries and accidents in winter sports;
Young athletes’ performance and health in winter sports.

Prof. Dr. Tomasz Gabryś
Prof. Dr. Arkadiusz Stanula
Prof. Dr. Zbigniew Waśkiewicz
Guest Editors

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Keywords

winter sports
performance training
environmental conditioning
health
physiological performance testing
exercise and psychological stress

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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14 pages, 1767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Classification of Fitness Components in Elite Alpine Skiers: A Cluster Analysis

by Gabriella Penitente, Hayden A. Young, William A. Sands and Jeni R. McNeal

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(10), 5841; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20105841 - 17 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2335

Abstract

The current study is an exploratory, secondary data analysis of a selection of physiological and biomechanical fitness components used to assess elite alpine skiers. The present study will provide new knowledge that can be used to aid training prescription and talent identification. A hierarchical cluster analysis was used to identify groups of variables that are crucial for elite alpine skiers and differences based on sex and competition level. The key findings of the study are the patterns that emerged in the generated dendrograms. Physiological and biomechanical fitness components are differentiated in the dendrograms of male and female world-cup-level alpine skiers, but not in non-world-cup athletes. Components related to the aerobic and anaerobic capacity tightly cluster in male athletes at world cup and non-world-cup level, and female world cup athletes. Lower body explosive force production appears to be more critical in male world cup athletes than female world cup athletes. More research is needed into the importance of isometric strength in the lower body. Future research should use larger sample sizes and consider other alpine ski demographics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

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11 pages, 1147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Becoming a Paralympic Champion—Analysis of the Morpho-Functional Abilities of a Disabled Female Athlete in Cross-Country Skiing over a 10-Year Period

by Wojciech Gawroński

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(5), 3909; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20053909 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1243

Abstract

Changing medical classification into the functional one in disabled cross-country skiing means that the athlete’s predispositions and performance abilities most of all determine the final result in cross-country skiing. Thus, exercise tests have become an indispensable element of the training process. The subject of this study is to present a rare analysis of morpho-functional abilities in relation to the implementation of training workloads during the training preparation for a Paralympic champion in cross-country skiing when she was close to her maximal achievements. The study was performed to investigate abilities evaluated during laboratory tests and how they relate to performance outcomes during major tournaments. An exercise test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer was performed three times a year on a cross-country disabled female skier over a 10-year period. The morpho-functional level which enabled the athlete to compete for gold medals in the Paralympic Games (PG) is best reflected in the results obtained by her in the tests in the period of direct preparation for the PG and confirms optimal training workloads in this time. The study showed, that the VO_2max level is presently the most important determinant of physical performance achieved by the examined athlete with physical disabilities. The aim of this paper is to present the level of exercise capacity of the Paralympic champion based on the analysis of the results of the tests in relation to the implementation of training workloads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

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10 pages, 339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How to Test the On-Ice Aerobic Capacity of Speed Skaters? An On-Ice Incremental Skating Test for Young Skaters

by Zhenxing Kong, Hanyue Zhang, Mingyue Zhang, Xiao Jia, Jingjing Yu, Junpeng Feng and Shouwei Zhang

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(4), 2995; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042995 - 8 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1706

Abstract

Aerobic capacity is important for speed skaters to achieve good results in middle–long distance events. The technical characteristics of speed skating cause intermittent blood flow blockage in the lower limbs. Therefore, an athlete’s aerobic capacity on ice may differ from that measured by cycling or running. Now, the on-ice aerobic capacity lacks methods for conducting aerobic capacity tests on ice. Objective: The objective of this study was to develop a method for measuring on-ice aerobic capacity for young athletes and to compare it with the VO_2max test on cycling. Methods: This study established a test method for the on-ice aerobic capacity of young, high-level speed skaters with incremental load (on-ice incremental skating test, OIST) through expert interviews and literature review. In the first part, OIST was used to test the aerobic abilities of 65 youth professional speed skaters (51 males and 14 females) on ice and to explore the correlation with their specific performance. The second part compares the relationship between aerobic capacity on ice and aerobic capacity on bicycle of 18 young high-level male athletes. The third part establishes the regression formula of ice ventilation threshold heart rate. The OIST established in this study can evaluate the on-ice aerobic capacity of athletes from National Level and Level 1&2 in China. The athletes’ on-ice aerobic capacity indicators were significantly lower than those of the cycling test. However, the values of absolute VO_2max and absolute ventilatory threshold had a high correlation (R = 0.532, p < 0.05; R = 0.584, p < 0.05). The regression formula of ventilatory threshold heart rate on ice = 0.921 × HRmax (Cycling test) −9.243. The OIST established in this study meets the characteristics and requirements of the VO_2max measurement method. The OIST seems to be able to better evaluate the aerobic capacity of athletes skating on ice. The indicators of maximum oxygen uptake and ventilation threshold in OIST were significantly lower than those in the aerobic cycling test, but there was a good correlation. The aerobic cycling test can be used as an important selection index of the ice aerobic capacity of speed skaters. The regression formula will provide an important basis for coaches to accurately monitor the intensity of ice training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

13 pages, 845 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Left Ventricular, Left Atrial and Right Ventricular Strain Modifications after Maximal Exercise in Elite Ski-Mountaineering Athletes: A Feasibility Speckle Tracking Study

by Paul Zimmermann, Max L. Eckstein, Othmar Moser, Isabelle Schöffl, Lukas Zimmermann and Volker Schöffl

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(20), 13153; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013153 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1795

Abstract

Eleven world elite ski-mountaineering (Ski-Mo) athletes were evaluated for pronounced echocardiographic physiological remodeling as the primary aim of our feasibility speckle tracking study. In this context, sports-related cardiac remodeling was analyzed by performing two-dimensional echocardiography, including speckle tracking analysis of the left atrium (LA), right ventricle (RV) and left ventricular (LV) global longitudinal strain (LV-GLS) at rest and post-peak performance. The feasibility echocardiographic speckle tracking analysis was performed on eleven elite Ski-Mo athletes, which were obtained in 2022 during the annual medical examination. The obtained data of the professional Ski-Mo athletes (11 athletes, age: 18–26 years) were compared for different echocardiographic parameters at rest and post-exercise. Significant differences were found for LV-GLS mean (p = 0.0036) and phasic LA conduit strain pattern at rest and post-exercise (p = 0.0033). Furthermore, negative correlation between LV mass and LV-GLS (p = 0.0195, r = −0.69) and LV mass Index and LV-GLS (p = 0.0253, r = −0.66) at rest were elucidated. This descriptive reporting provided, for the first time, a sport-specific dynamic remodeling of an entire elite national team of the Ski-Mo athlete’s left heart and elucidated differences in the dynamic deformation pattern of the left heart. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

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11 pages, 873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Aspects of World Elite Competitive German Winter Sport Athletes

by Paul Zimmermann, Jan Wüstenfeld, Lukas Zimmermann, Volker Schöffl and Isabelle Schöffl

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5620; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095620 - 5 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2243

Abstract

Nine Ski mountaineering (Ski-Mo), ten Nordic-Cross Country (NCC) and twelve world elite biathlon (Bia) athletes were evaluated for cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) performance as the primary aim of our descriptive preliminary report. A multicenter retrospective analysis of CPET data was performed in 31 elite winter sports athletes, which were obtained in 2021 during the annual medical examination. The matched data of the elite winter sports athletes (14 women, 17 male athletes, age: 18–32 years) were compared for different CPET parameters, and athlete’s physique data and sport-specific training schedules. All athletes showed, as estimated in elite winter sport athletes, excellent performance data in the CPET analyses. Significant differences were revealed for VE _VT2 (respiratory minute volume at the second ventilatory threshold (VT2)), highest maximum respiratory minute volume (VE_maximum), the indexed ventilatory oxygen uptake (VO₂) at VT2 (VO₂/kg _VT2), the oxygen pulse at VT2, and the maximum oxygen pulse level between the three professional winter sports disciplines. This report provides new evidence that in different world elite winter sport professionals, significant differences in CPET parameters can be demonstrated, against the background of athlete’s physique as well as training control and frequency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

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12 pages, 887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Psychological Profile of Elite Polish Short Track Athletes: An Analysis of Temperamental Traits and Impulsiveness

by Katarzyna Gabrys and Antoni Wontorczyk

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(6), 3446; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063446 - 15 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2435

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the temperament and impulsiveness profile of short track athletes. Professional athletes (juniors and seniors), under training in the Polish National Team (N_female = 21, N_male = 19, M_age = 20), completed The Temperament and Character Inventory- Revised (TCI-R (56)) and a shortened version of the Urgency, Premeditation, Perseverance, Sensation-Seeking, Positive Urgency, Impulsive Behavior Scale (S-UPPS-P). The results proved that skaters obtain higher scores than the general population on the temperamental scales i.e., persistence, harm avoidance and novelty seeking and impulsivity scales i.e., sensation seeking and positive urgency. After the cluster analysis, two homogeneous profiles of short track athletes were determined. The first profile includes athletes with high scores on the reward dependence, persistence, self-directedness, cooperativeness, temperamental and sensation-seeking impulsiveness scales coupled with low scores on the temperamental scale, harm avoidance and impulsiveness scales: positive urgency, negative urgency and the lack of perseverance. The second profile is the reverse of the first profile for the short track athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

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10 pages, 2116 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study of Two-Minute versus Three-Minute Passive Recovery on Sprint Skating Performance of Ice Hockey Forwards and Defensemen

by Arkadiusz Stanula, Subir Gupta, Jakub Baron, Anna Bieniec, Rajmund Tomik, Tomasz Gabrys, Petr Valach and Andrzej Szymon Swinarew

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(24), 13029; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182413029 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2522

Abstract

The impact of two different passive recovery durations, two and three minutes, between sets of repeated sprint skating ability (RSSA) test on skating speed, speed decrement (S_dec), and heart rate (HR) response of ice hockey forwards (n = 12) and defensemen (n = 7) were determined. Six sets of 3 × 80 m sprint, with two-minute passive recovery between two consecutive sets, were performed in RSSA-2. A three-minute passive recovery period between two consecutive sets was allowed in RSSA-3. Skating speed, S_dec, and HR were measured in all tests. Subjects skated faster (p < 0.05) in most of the RSSA-3 sets than the corresponding set of RSSA-2. Defensemen were slower (p < 0.05) than forwards in most of the cases. The S_dec was higher in defensemen than in forwards, although the difference was significant occasionally. No difference in peak HR and minimum HR between forwards and defensemen was found. RSSA-3 is beneficial over RSSA-2 in both forwards and defensemen by increasing speed. Defensemen are slower and show early fatigability than forwards, and no difference in HR response was noted between forwards and defensemen. This study concludes that three-minute recovery is beneficial over two-minute recovery by increasing skating speed, although S_dec and HR response neither vary significantly between RSSA-2 and RSSA-3, nor between forwards and defensemen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

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11 pages, 2191 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Rest Period Duration between Sets of Repeated Sprint Skating Ability Test on the Skating Ability of Ice Hockey Players

by Jakub Baron, Subir Gupta, Anna Bieniec, Grzegorz Klich, Tomasz Gabrys, Andrzej Szymon Swinarew, Karel Svatora and Arkadiusz Stanula

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(20), 10591; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010591 - 9 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2132

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of two different rest periods, 2 min and 3 min, between consecutive sets of a repeated sprint skating ability (RSSA) test, on the skating ability of ice hockey players. Two RSSA tests, RSSA-2 and RSSA-3, were assessed on 24 ice hockey players. In RSSA-2, six sets of 3 × 80 m sprint skating, with 2 min passive recovery between two consecutive sets was allowed. In RSSA-3, the recovery period between the sets was 3 min. Average speed, average heart rate (HR_aver), peak heart rate (HR_peak), blood lactate concentration ([BLa]), and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured in both RSSA-2 and RSSA-3 tests. In all the sets, except set 1, the average speed of the subjects was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in RSSA-3 than the respective set in RSSA-2. Average HR and RPE were higher in RSSA-2 than RSSA-3 in most of the sets. For any given set, no difference in HR_peak was noted between RSSA-2 and RSSA-3. Post-sprint (Set 6) [BLa] was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in RSSA-3 than RSSA-2. This study concludes that the 3 min rest period is more beneficial than the 2 min rest period, for (1) increasing skating speed and (2) reducing overall cardiac workload and perceived fatigue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

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12 pages, 1090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Environmental Conditions on Summits of Mount Everest and K2 in Climbing and Midwinter Seasons

by Robert K. Szymczak, Michał K. Pyka, Tomasz Grzywacz, Michał Marosz, Marta Naczyk and Magdalena Sawicka

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(6), 3040; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063040 - 16 Mar 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3309

Abstract

(1) Background: Today’s elite alpinists target K2 and Everest in midwinter. This study aimed to asses and compare weather at the summits of both peaks in the climbing season (Everest, May; K2, July) and the midwinter season (January and February). (2) Methods: We assessed environmental conditions using the ERA5 dataset (1979–2019). Analyses examined barometric pressure (BP), temperature (Temp), wind speed (Wind), perceived altitude (Alt), maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), vertical climbing speed (Speed), wind chill equivalent temperature (WCT), and facial frostbite time (FFT). (3) Results: Most climbing-season parameters were found to be more severe (p < 0.05) on Everest than on K2: BP (333 ± 1 vs. 347 ± 1 hPa), Alt (8925 ± 20 vs. 8640 ± 20 m), VO₂max (16.2 ± 0.1 vs. 17.8 ± 0.1 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹), Speed (190 ± 2 vs. 223 ± 2 m·h⁻¹), Temp (−26 ± 1 vs. −21 ± 1°C), WCT (−45 ± 2 vs. −37 ± 2 °C), and FFT (6 ± 1 vs. 11 ± 2 min). Wind was found to be similar (16 ± 3 vs. 15 ± 3 m·s⁻¹). Most midwinter parameters were found to be worse (p < 0.05) on Everest vs. K2: BP (324 ± 2 vs. 326 ± 2 hPa), Alt (9134 ± 40 vs. 9095 ± 48 m), VO₂max (15.1 ± 0.2 vs. 15.3 ± 0.3 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹), Speed (165 ± 5 vs. 170 ± 6 m·h⁻¹), Wind (41 ± 6 vs. 27 ± 4 m·s⁻¹), and FFT (<1 min vs. 1 min). Everest’s Temp of −36 ± 2 °C and WCT −66 ± 3 °C were found to be less extreme than K2’s Temp of −45 ± 1 °C and WCT −76 ± 2 °C. (4) Conclusions: Everest presents more extreme conditions in the climbing and midwinter seasons than K2. K2’s 8° higher latitude makes its midwinter BP similar and Temp lower than Everest’s. K2’s midwinter conditions are more severe than Everest’s in the climbing season. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

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11 pages, 791 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Oxygen Supply System Management in an Overweight Adult after 12 Months in Antarctica—Study Case

by Maria Radziejowska, Yevgen Moiseyenko, Paweł Radziejowski and Michał Zych

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(8), 4077; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084077 - 13 Apr 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1997

Abstract

The aim of the study was to try to determine the functional state of the respiratory system, i.e., selected parameters and indicators of physiological systems responsible for the supply of oxygen at all stages of its delivery in people as their body weight increases from normal weight to overweight. The studies include an analysis of test results of functional respiratory system state (FSD) indicators of a 30-year-old and 170-cm tall man. Measurements of FSD were conducted two times: the first time before an expedition to Antarctica at 70 kg (normal body weight); the next measurements were taken a year later, after coming back from the expedition, at 82 kg (overweight). When analyzing the functional respiratory system state in terms of the effect of overweight it was found that the maintenance of the oxygen homeostasis in those conditions occurred at the level of a compensated hypoxic state. That is why the decision to engage in physical activity can be made only if we are sure that significant destructive additive effects of both types of hypoxic influences (from excessive body weight and from the physical activity) are not overlapping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Winter Sports Implications for Training, Environmental and Health)

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