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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Sport and Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2022) | Viewed by 35331

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Prof. Dr. Antonio José Silva

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Guest Editor

Departamento de Ciências do Desporto, Exercício e Saúde, Quinta de Prados, Escola de Ciências da Vida e do Ambiente, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
Interests: swimming; training; evaluation; biomechanics; performance

Prof. Dr. Daniel Marinho

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Assistant Guest Editor

Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
Interests: health fitness and exercise; sports biomechanics; exercise physiology; resistance training; strength training; concurrent training; performance assessment; strength and conditioning; physical fitness; exercise evaluation; exercise prescription; swimming; water aerobics; warm-up procedures; recovery procedures
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Dr. Tiago M. Barbosa

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Assistant Guest Editor

1. Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
2. Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Covilhã, Portugal
Interests: biomechanics; elite performance; sports performance; modelling; forecast

Dr. Henrique Pereira Neiva

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Assistant Guest Editor

Department of Sport Science, University of Beira-Interior (UBI/CIDESD), 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
Interests: strength and conditioning; health fitness and exercise; sports biomechanics; exercise physiology; resistance training; strength training; concurrent training; performance assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Swimming performance has become one of the emerging and trendy topics in sport sciences and related scientific fields. On a regular basis, coaches and athletes require evidence-based support to help their decision making and ultimately to excel in a highly demanding and competitive environment. Swimming performance is strongly linked to physiological variables, and those are dependent on biomechanical profile and motor strategies. Improvements in the aforementioned determinants, even those deemed as marginal, can add up, yielding meaningful improvements in performance. These days, the swimming fraternity and academic community is keen to have a better understanding of how different dose–response patterns can help swimmers to enhance their performance. This is the case for topics such as the response to different types of exercise, exercise programs, warm-ups, and recovery techniques, among others. Each swimmer aspires to improve, reaching their main goals. In this Special Issue, we invite researchers and practitioners to submit manuscripts related to the analysis of swimming performance based on its key determinants, such as physiology, biomechanics, motor control, or strength and conditioning. Implications for performance enhancement, such as descriptions, modeling, and forecast may also be addressed.

Prof. Dr. Antonio José Silva
Dr. Daniel Marinho
Dr. Tiago M. Barbosa
Dr. Henrique Neiva
Guest Editors

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Keywords

swimming
training
evaluation
biomechanics
performance

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

8 pages, 623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gender Differences and the Influence of Body Composition on Land and Pool-Based Assessments of Anaerobic Power and Capacity

by Jacquelyn N. Zera, Elizabeth F. Nagle, Emma Connell, Erin Curtin, Wilmina Marget, Anna P. Simonson, Takashi Nagai, John Abt and Scott Lephart

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(13), 7902; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137902 - 28 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2309

Abstract

Consistent differences between males and females have been shown in land-based measurements of anaerobic power and capacity. However, these differences have not been investigated for a tethered 30-s maximal swimming test (TST). The purpose of this study is to explore gender differences in land and pool-based assessments of anaerobic power (F_peak) and capacity (F_mean), as well as the influence of body composition. Thirteen males and fifteen females completed land (Wingate (WAnT)) and pool-based (TST) measures of anaerobic power and capacity previously described in the literature. Additionally, the subjects completed assessments of body composition via air displacement plethysmography. The males produced higher force than the females for F_peak (p < 0.001) and F_mean (p = 0.008) during the TST. However, linear regression analysis determined that lean mass significantly predicted F_peak (p = 0.002) and F_mean (p < 0.001) during the TST, while gender was no longer significant (p = 0.694 and p = 0.136, respectively). In conclusion, increases in anaerobic power and capacity (F_peak and F_mean) may be a function of increased lean mass in males and females, warranting future research on the impact of resistance training programs on force production and swimming performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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8 pages, 560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of High-Volume Training on Psychological State and Performance in Competitive Swimmers

by Oussama Gaied Chortane, Sofiene Amara, Tiago M. Barbosa, Raouf Hammami, Riadh Khalifa, Sabri Gaied Chortane and Roland van den Tillaar

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(13), 7619; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137619 - 22 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2470

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the effect of four weeks of aquatic high-volume training (HVT) on the psychological state (somatic, cognitive anxiety, and self-confidence) and sprint swimming performance (50 m front crawl) compared to the standard training program (moderate volume training) in competitive swimmers. Twenty-eight male competitive swimmers participated in this study and were randomly allocated into two groups: HVT group (n = 14; age = 16.4 ± 0.31 years) and control group that underwent the standard training program (n = 14; age = 16.1 ± 0.30 years). All psychological state variables and swimming performance were measured in pre and post-test. Our findings showed a significant increase in anxiety state (34.13% to 45.83%; ES = 3.26 to 3.38) and a significant decrease in self-confidence (18.43%; ES = 2.39) after four weeks of HVT, while all psychological state variables remained unchanged in the control group (p > 0.05). In addition, our results showed no significant enhancement in swimming performance in both groups (p > 0.05). The sudden increase in training mileage negatively affected the anxiety, decreasing the state of self-confidence of the participants. In addition, four weeks of high training volume are insufficient to improve swimming performance. To conclude, gradually increasing the volume of the training load may be an adequate solution to promote adaptation to the effort, thus maintaining the stability of the psychological state of swimmers. In addition, it is recommended to integrate a concurrent mental preparation program with high-volume training to monitor the psychological state of competitive swimmers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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15 pages, 2897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of the Swimmer’s Trunk Oscillation on Dolphin Kick Performance Using a Computational Method with Multi-Body Motion: A Case Study

by Zhiya Chen, Tianzeng Li, Jin Yang and Chuan Zuo

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 4969; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19094969 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2178

Abstract

The effect of a specific Chinese swimmer’s trunk oscillation on dolphin kick was investigated in order to optimize competitive swimming movement. Using a numerical simulation method based on multi-body motion, different swimmer’s trunk oscillation during a dolphin kick was analyzed. The simulation was conducted using 3D incompressible Navier–Stokes equations and renormalization group k-ε turbulence model, combined with the Volume of Fluid method to capture the water surface. The simulation’s results were evaluated by comparing them with experimental data and with previous studies. The net streamwise forces, mean swimming velocity, and joint moments were also investigated. There was a positive correlation between the mean swimming velocity and the amplitudes of the swimmer’s trunk oscillation, where the Pearson correlation coefficient was 0.986 and the selected model was statistically significant (p < 0.05). In addition, as the mean swimming velocity increased from 1.42 m/s in Variant 1 to 2 m/s in Variant 5, the maximum positive moments of joints increased by about 24.7% for the ankles, 27.4% for the knees, −3.9% for the hips, and 5.8% for the upper waist, whereas the maximum negative moments of joints increased by about 64.5% for the ankles, 28.1% for the knees, 23.1% for the hips, and 10.1% for the upper waist. The relationship between the trunk oscillation and the vortices was also investigated. Therefore, it is recommended that swimmers should try to increase the amplitudes of trunk oscillation to increase their swimming velocity. In order to achieve this goal, swimmers should increase strength training for the ankles, knees, and upper waist during the upkick. Moreover, extra strength training is warranted for the ankles, knees, hips, and upper waist during the downkick. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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17 pages, 33585 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Different Undulatory Underwater Swimming Positions Based on Multi-Body Motion Numerical Simulation Method

by Jin Yang, Tianzeng Li, Zhiya Chen, Chuan Zuo and Xiaodong Li

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(22), 12263; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212263 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2763

Abstract

The study of hydrodynamic characteristics of swimming is the main way to optimize the swimming movement. The relationship between position, water depth, and swimming performance of undulatory underwater swimming are one of the main concerns of scholars. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze the swimming performance of three different undulatory underwater swimming positions under various swimming depths using a numerical simulation method based on multi-body motion. The simulation was conducted using 3D incompressible Navier–Stokes equations using the RNG k-ε turbulence closure equations, and in combination with the VOF method thus that we could include the water surface in our calculations. Different swimming depths based on the distance from the shoulder joint center to the initial water surface were considered. The velocity of the shoulder joint center was captured with a swimming motion monitoring system (KiSwim) and compared with the calculated results. The study found that there was a significant difference in the hydrodynamic characteristics of the three undulatory underwater swimming positions (i.e., the dorsal, lateral, and frontal positions) when swimming near the water surface, and the difference decreased as the swimming depth increased. There was a negative correlation (R(dorsal) = −0.928, R(frontal) = −0.937, R(lateral) = −0.930) between the swimming velocities of the three undulatory underwater swimming positions and the water depth (water depth = 0.2–0.7 m) and that the lateral position had the greatest average velocity. Therefore, it is recommended that swimmers travel at least 0.5 m below the water surface in any undulatory underwater swimming position in order to avoid excessive drag forces. As the swimmer approaches the water surface, the lateral position is worth considering, which has better velocity and hydrodynamic advantage than the other two undulatory underwater swimming positions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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10 pages, 732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

What Is the Optimal Strength Training Load to Improve Swimming Performance? A Randomized Trial of Male Competitive Swimmers

by Sofiene Amara, Emmet Crowley, Senda Sammoud, Yassine Negra, Raouf Hammami, Oussema Gaied Chortane, Riadh Khalifa, Sabri Gaied Chortane and Roland van den Tillaar

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(22), 11770; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211770 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5764

Abstract

This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of high, moderate, and low resistance training volume-load of maximum strength training on muscle strength and swimming performance in competitive swimmers. Thirty-three male swimmers were randomly allocated to high (age = 16.5 ± 0.30 years), moderate (age = 16.1 ± 0.32 years) and a low resistance training volume-load group (age = 15.9 ± 0.31). This study was carried out in mid-season (January to March). Pre and post strength (e.g., repetition maximum [1RM] leg extension and bench press tests), swimming (25, 50 m front-crawl), start (speed, time, distance) and turn (time of turn) performance tests were conducted. Our findings revealed a large main effect of time for 1RM bench press: d = 1.38; 1RM leg extension: d = 1.55, and for 25 (d = 1.12), and 50 m (d = 1.97) front-crawl, similarly for start and turn performance (d = 1.28–1.46). However, no significant Group × Time interactions were shown in all strength swimming performances, start and turn tests (p > 0.05). In conclusion, low training loads have been shown to elicit the same results as moderate, and high training loads protocol. Therefore, this study shows evidence that the addition of low training volume-loads as a regular part of a maximal strength training regime will elicit improvements in strength and swimming performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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10 pages, 2658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Swimming Performance, Biomechanical Variables and the Calculated Predicted 1-RM Push-up in Competitive Swimmers

by Sofiene Amara, Oussama Gaied Chortane, Yassine Negra, Raouf Hammami, Riadh Khalifa, Sabri Gaied Chortane and Roland van den Tillaar

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(21), 11395; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111395 - 29 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3338

Abstract

One repetition maximum (1RM) push-ups, based upon the load–velocity relationship, are able to predict the maximum upper body strength. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between the predicted 1RM push-up based upon the load–velocity relationship and swimming performance and kinematical variables in competitive swimmers. Thirty-three competitive male swimmers (age = 16.46 ± 0.59 years, body mass = 72.82 ± 8.41 kg, body height = 180.56 ± 5.69 cm) performed push-up exercises without a weight vest and with a 10, 20 and 30 kg weight vests. A load–velocity relationship was established as a product of the load and velocity of the push-up per participant, and the equation was used to establish a predicted 1RM. Our findings showed a predicted 1RM push-up of 82.98 ± 9.95 kg. Pearson correlations revealed a nearly perfect relationship between the 1RM push-up and the 25 or 50 m front crawl (r = −0.968, r = −0.955), and between 1RM push-up and the 25 or 50 m front crawl with arms (r = −0.955, r = x0.941). Similarly, our results revealed significant near-perfect correlations between 1RM push-up and kinematical variables (r = 0.93–0.96) except the stroke index, which had a large relationship (r = 0.56). This study suggests that swimming performance and kinematical variables are correlated with the predicted 1RM push-up. The 1RM push-up based upon the load–velocity relationship is a low cost and time-effective alternative for swimmers and coaches to predict maximum upper body strength to optimize swimming performance in short races. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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9 pages, 9927 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Pacing Strategies of 1500 m Freestyle Swimmers in the World Championships According to Their Final Position

by Beatriz Lara and Juan Del Coso

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(14), 7559; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147559 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2577

Abstract

In 1500 m freestyle swimming races, pacing is generally represented by a parabolic or U-shaped curve indicating that swimming velocity is greatest at the start and the last laps of the race while swimmers maintain an even pace through the middle section of the race. However, there is no information to determine if 1500 m race winners select pacing different to other, less successful swimmers within the same competition. Therefore, this investigation aimed to describe the pacing strategies adopted by 1500 m freestyle competitive swimmers in World Championships (long course), from 2003 to 2019 to determine the most effective pacing to obtain victory or a medal. The official overall and split times for 1500 m freestyle races of the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) were obtained from the website of this organization. In total, data of 143 swimming performances (71 male and 72 female) were extracted. With the split times, lap times, and position were calculated across the race. To determine differences in the pacing between best- and worst-ranked finalist, swimmers in each race were divided into four groups based on the final position (1st vs. 2nd vs. 3rd vs. 4–8th). All the lap times of the winners of the race were faster than those of participants classified as 4–8th position for men and women races (p < 0.05). However, there were no differences in lap velocity among the different positions achieved at the end of the race when it was normalized by average race velocity. Additionally, there were no differences in the lap-to-lap variability among swimmers with different positions at the end of the race. In summary, both men and women elite swimmers selected parabolic pacing consisting of a fast start in the first lap, an even pace close to their average race velocity in the mid-section of the race (from 50 to 1400 m), followed by an end spurt in the final lap(s). This pattern was very similar in all finalists irrespective of the final position in the race. Hence, the obtaining of a medal in the World Championships was associated to possessing a faster average race velocity rather than a specific pacing profile through the race. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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18 pages, 3854 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploration of Internal and External Factors of Swimmers’ Performance Based on Biofluid Mechanics and Computer Simulation

by Yifan Liu, Gang Lu, Junke Chen and Qigang Zhu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(12), 6471; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126471 - 15 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3347

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to explore the influence of different swimming strokes on the performance of swimmers and the resistance of each part from the perspective of hydrodynamics. In this paper, the influence of internal and external factors on the swimming speed is analyzed comprehensively and meticulously from the macro and micro perspectives. In the macroscopic part, the swimming speed representation model is established, and the validity of the model is further verified by the analysis of experimental data and hydrodynamic equations. In the microscopic part, we carefully analyzed details such as the opening angle of the palm, the timing of the arm and leg and the angular velocity of each link of the human body. Combined with computer simulation, stereo modeling and numerical analysis are carried out, and the best scheme FOR how to cooperate with each part of the body in swimming is given. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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12 pages, 1752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biological Age in Relation to Somatic, Physiological, and Swimming Kinematic Indices as Predictors of 100 m Front Crawl Performance in Young Female Swimmers

by Kamil Sokołowski, Marek Strzała, Arkadiusz Stanula, Łukasz Kryst, Artur Radecki-Pawlik, Piotr Krężałek, Thomas Rosemann and Beat Knechtle

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(11), 6062; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18116062 - 4 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3042

Abstract

Background: Some swimmers reach high performance level at a relatively young age. The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between adolescent female swimmers’ 100 m front crawl race (

V_{t o t a l 100}

) and several anthropometry, [...] Read more.

V_{t o t a l 100}

) and several anthropometry, body composition, and physiological and specific strength indices. Methods: Nineteen adolescent female swimmers were examined for biological age (BA) and body composition. Oxygen uptake was measured during water-flume stage-test front crawl swimming with ventilatory thresholds examination. Specific strength indices were assessed during 30 s of tethered swimming. Stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL), and stroke index (SI) were also examined. Results: BA was strongly correlated with anthropometrics and tethered swimming strength indices, and showed moderate to strong correlation with ventilatory thresholds. Speed of swimming in the race was moderately to largely correlated with speed at

\dot{V} O_{2} m a x

−

V_{\dot{V} O_{2} m a x}

(r = 0.47–0.55; p < 0.05)—ventilatory thresholds (

V_{A T}

V_{R C P}

) (r = 0.50–0.85; p < 0.05), SL (r = 0.58–0.62; p < 0.05), and SI (r = 0.79–0.81; p < 0.01). Conclusion: Results confirmed a significant role of biological maturation mediation on body composition and body size, ventilatory indices, and specific strength indices. BA was not a significant mediation factor influencing the swimming kinematics (SL, SI) and speeds of

V_{A T}

V_{R C P}

V_{\dot{V} O_{2} m a x}

, which were strong predictors of the 100 m race. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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10 pages, 850 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Master Swimmers’ Performance and Active Drag Evolution along a Training Mesocycle

by Henrique P. Neiva, Ricardo J. Fernandes, Ricardo Cardoso, Daniel A. Marinho and J. Arturo Abraldes

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(7), 3569; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073569 - 30 Mar 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2731

Abstract

This study aimed to analyze the effects of a swimming training mesocycle in master swimmers’ performance and active drag. Twenty-two 39.87 ± 6.10 year-old master swimmers performed a 25 m front crawl at maximal intensity before and after a typical four-week training mesocycle. Maximum, mean and minimum speeds, speed decrease and hip horizontal intra-cyclic velocity variation were assessed using an electromechanical speedometer, and the active drag and power to overcome drag were determined using the measuring active drag system. Maximum, mean and minimum front crawl speeds improved from pre- to post-training (mean ± 95% CI: 3.1 ± 2.8%, p = 0.04; 2.9 ± 1.6%, p = 0.01; and 4.6 ± 3.1%, p = 0.01; respectively) and the speed decrease along the 25 m test lowered after the training period (82.5 ± 76.3%, p = 0.01). The training mesocycle caused a reduction in the active drag at speeds corresponding to 70% (5.0 ± 3.9%), 80% (5.6 ± 4.0%), and 90% (5.9 ± 4.0%), but not at 100% (5.9 ± 6.7%), of the swimmers’ maximal exertions in the 25 m test. These results showed that four weeks of predominantly aerobic training could improve master swimmers’ performance and reduce their hydrodynamic drag while swimming mainly at submaximal speeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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9 pages, 346 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling the 200 m Front-Crawl Performance Predictors at the Winter Season Peak

by Mário J. Costa, Catarina C. Santos, Daniel A. Marinho, António J. Silva and Tiago M. Barbosa

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(6), 2126; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062126 - 23 Mar 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2986

Abstract

This study aimed to identify potential predictors of 200 m front crawl performance at the winter season peak based on the anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical domains. Twelve expert male swimmers completed an incremental 7 × 200 m step test immediately after their most important winter competitions. Measurements were made of: (i) height, body mass and arm span as anthropometrical parameters; (ii) velocity at a 4 mmol·L⁻¹ lactate concentration (V4), maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2máx) and energy cost (C), as physiological parameters; (iii) stroke frequency (SF), stroke length (SL), stroke index (SI) and propelling efficiency (η_p) as biomechanical indicators; and (iv) 200 m front crawl race time in official long course competitions. Spearman correlation coefficients identified V4 as the single factor having significant relationship with performance. Simple regression analysis determined V4, SI and arm span as the most relevant variables of each group. Multiple linear regression models showed that physiological factors explained better (59%) the variation in performance at this stage of the season, followed by the biomechanical (14%) ones. Therefore, V4 can be one important aspect for training control and diagnosis for those who want to achieve success in the 200 m front crawl at the winter season peak. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Activities, Health and Wellbeing)

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