International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Editorial

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Open AccessEditorial

Food Safety, a Global Challenge

by Mieke Uyttendaele, Eelco Franz and Oliver Schlüter

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13010067 - 22 Dec 2015

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 15303

Abstract

To provide more food and make use of precious water and nutrient resources, communities increasingly value sustainable food production. [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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Research

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735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Antibiotic Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Milk: A Public Health Implication

by Muyiwa Ajoke Akindolire, Olubukola Oluranti Babalola and Collins Njie Ateba

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(9), 10254-10275; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120910254 - 25 Aug 2015

Cited by 58 | Viewed by 9255

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence, antibiotic susceptibility profiles, and virulence genes determinants of S. aureus isolated from milk obtained from retail outlets of the North-West Province, South Africa. To achieve this, 200 samples of raw, bulk and pasteurised [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence, antibiotic susceptibility profiles, and virulence genes determinants of S. aureus isolated from milk obtained from retail outlets of the North-West Province, South Africa. To achieve this, 200 samples of raw, bulk and pasteurised milk were obtained randomly from supermarkets, shops and some farms in the North-West Province between May 2012 and April 2013. S. aureus was isolated and positively identified using morphological (Gram staining), biochemical (DNase, catalase, haemolysis and rapid slide agglutination) tests, protein profile analysis (MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry) and molecular (nuc specific PCR) methods. The antimicrobial resistance profiles of the isolates were determined using the phenotypic agar diffusion method. Genes encoding enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins and collagen adhesins were also screened using PCR. Among all the samples examined, 30 of 40 raw milk samples (75%), 25 of 85 bulk milk samples (29%) and 10 of 75 pasteurised milk samples (13%) were positive for S. aureus. One hundred and fifty-six PCR-confirmed S. aureus isolates were obtained from 75 contaminated milk samples. A large proportion (60%–100%) of the isolates was resistant to penicillin G, ampicillin, oxacillin, vancomycin, teicoplanin and erythromycin. On the contrary, low level resistance (8.3%–40%) was observed for gentamicin, kanamycin and sulphamethoxazole. Methicillin resistance was detected in 59% of the multidrug resistant isolates and this was a cause for concern. However, only a small proportion (20.6%) of these isolates possessed PBP2a which codes for Methicillin resistance in S. aureus. In addition, 32.7% of isolates possessed the sec gene whereas the sea, seb sed, see, cna, eta, etb genes were not detected. The findings of this study showed that raw, bulk and pasteurised milk in the North-West Province is contaminated with toxigenic and multi-drug resistant S. aureus strains. There is a need to implement appropriate control measures to reduce contamination as well as the spread of virulent S. aureus strains and the burden of disease in humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

2562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Bacterial Community Naturally Present on Commercially Grown Basil Leaves: Evaluation of Sample Preparation Prior to Culture-Independent Techniques

by Siele Ceuppens, Stefanie Delbeke, Dieter De Coninck, Jolien Boussemaere, Nico Boon and Mieke Uyttendaele

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(8), 10171-10197; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120810171 - 21 Aug 2015

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 9637

Abstract

Fresh herbs such as basil constitute an important food commodity worldwide. Basil provides considerable culinary and health benefits, but has also been implicated in foodborne illnesses. The naturally occurring bacterial community on basil leaves is currently unknown, so the epiphytic bacterial community was [...] Read more.

Fresh herbs such as basil constitute an important food commodity worldwide. Basil provides considerable culinary and health benefits, but has also been implicated in foodborne illnesses. The naturally occurring bacterial community on basil leaves is currently unknown, so the epiphytic bacterial community was investigated using the culture-independent techniques denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and next-generation sequencing (NGS). Sample preparation had a major influence on the results from DGGE and NGS: Novosphingobium was the dominant genus for three different basil batches obtained by maceration of basil leaves, while washing of the leaves yielded lower numbers but more variable dominant bacterial genera including Klebsiella, Pantoea, Flavobacterium, Sphingobacterium and Pseudomonas. During storage of basil, bacterial growth and shifts in the bacterial community were observed with DGGE and NGS. Spoilage was not associated with specific bacterial groups and presumably caused by physiological tissue deterioration and visual defects, rather than by bacterial growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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762 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Factors for Salmonella, Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli and Campylobacter Occurrence in Primary Production of Leafy Greens and Strawberries

by Siele Ceuppens, Gro S. Johannessen, Ana Allende, Eduardo César Tondo, Fouad El-Tahan, Imca Sampers, Liesbeth Jacxsens and Mieke Uyttendaele

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(8), 9809-9831; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120809809 - 18 Aug 2015

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 8525

Abstract

The microbiological sanitary quality and safety of leafy greens and strawberries were assessed in the primary production in Belgium, Brazil, Egypt, Norway and Spain by enumeration of Escherichia coli and detection of Salmonella, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) and Campylobacter. Water samples [...] Read more.

The microbiological sanitary quality and safety of leafy greens and strawberries were assessed in the primary production in Belgium, Brazil, Egypt, Norway and Spain by enumeration of Escherichia coli and detection of Salmonella, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) and Campylobacter. Water samples were more prone to containing pathogens (54 positives out of 950 analyses) than soil (16/1186) and produce on the field (18/977 for leafy greens and 5/402 for strawberries). The prevalence of pathogens also varied markedly according to the sampling region. Flooding of fields increased the risk considerably, with odds ratio (OR) 10.9 for Salmonella and 7.0 for STEC. A significant association between elevated numbers of generic E. coli and detection of pathogens (OR of 2.3 for STEC and 2.7 for Salmonella) was established. Generic E. coli was found to be a suitable index organism for Salmonella and STEC, but to a lesser extent for Campylobacter. Guidelines on frequency of sampling and threshold values for E. coli in irrigation water may differ from region to region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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705 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association between the Hygiene Index Values of Live Fresh Aquatic Products and Food-Borne Diarrhea in the Population of the Ningbo Area in China

by Lijun Zhang, Lu Lu, Liye Shu, Jianjun Chen, Baobo Zou, Qi Zhou, Yuanliang Gu, Jinshun Zhao and Xialu Lin

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(8), 9154-9168; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120809154 - 6 Aug 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5097

Abstract

To investigate the association of the hygiene index values of live fresh aquatic products and food-borne diarrhea in the population of the Ningbo area in China. Volatile basic nitrogen (VBN), histamine (HIS), indole, tetrodotoxin (TTX), and paralytic, neurotoxic, amnesic and diarrhetic shellfish poisons [...] Read more.

To investigate the association of the hygiene index values of live fresh aquatic products and food-borne diarrhea in the population of the Ningbo area in China. Volatile basic nitrogen (VBN), histamine (HIS), indole, tetrodotoxin (TTX), and paralytic, neurotoxic, amnesic and diarrhetic shellfish poisons (PSP, NSP, ASP, and DSP, respectively) in the samples of live fresh aquatic products and food-borne diarrhea cases in six studied districts were analyzed. Results indicate that the incidence rate of food-borne diarrhea is related to the hygiene index values. Aside from VBN, the main risk factors related to food-borne diarrhea in edible aquatic products include DSP (in marine fish, shrimp, and other shellfishes), NSP, and ASP (in marine shrimp and crab). Hygiene index values among different species were significantly different. No significant difference in the monitoring index values was found among the six different studied districts. The reported cases of food-borne diarrhea were positively associated with VBN and DSP in aquatic products in Haishu, Jiangbei, Zhenhai, and Beilun, as well as VBN and NSP in aquatic products in Jiangdong and Yinzhou. In conclusion, VBN, DSP, NSP, and ASP are important risk factors for the occurring of food-borne diarrhea in the population of the Ningbo area in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

1459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Combined Disinfection Methods for Reducing Escherichia coli O157:H7 Population on Fresh-Cut Vegetables

by Eva Petri, Mariola Rodríguez and Silvia García

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(8), 8678-8690; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120808678 - 23 Jul 2015

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 8035

Abstract

Most current disinfection strategies for fresh-cut industry are focused on the use of different chemical agents; however, very little has been reported on the effectiveness of the hurdle technology. The effect of combined decontamination methods based on the use of different sanitizers (peroxyacetic [...] Read more.

Most current disinfection strategies for fresh-cut industry are focused on the use of different chemical agents; however, very little has been reported on the effectiveness of the hurdle technology. The effect of combined decontamination methods based on the use of different sanitizers (peroxyacetic acid and chlorine dioxide) and the application of pressure (vacuum/positive pressure) on the inactivation of the foodborne pathogen E. coli O157:H7 on fresh-cut lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and carrots (Daucus carota) was studied. Fresh produce, inoculated with E. coli O157:H7, was immersed (4 °C, 2 min) in tap water (W), chlorine water (CW), chlorine dioxide (ClO₂: 2 mg/L) and peroxyacetic acid (PAA: 100 mg/L) in combination with: (a) vacuum (V: 10 mbar) or (b) positive pressure application (P: 3 bar). The product quality and antimicrobial effects of the treatment on bacterial counts were determined both in process washing water and on fresh-cut produce. Evidence obtained in this study, suggests that the use of combined methods (P/V + sanitizers) results in a reduction on the microorganism population on produce similar to that found at atmospheric pressure. Moreover, the application of physical methods led to a significant detrimental effect on the visual quality of lettuce regardless of the solution used. Concerning the process water, PAA proved to be an effective alternative to chlorine for the avoidance of cross-contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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738 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Effect of Neem (Azadirachta indica) on the Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Dairy Manure

by Subbarao V. Ravva and Anna Korn

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(7), 7794-7803; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120707794 - 10 Jul 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6817

Abstract

Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EcO157) shed in cattle manure can survive for extended periods of time and intervention strategies to control this pathogen at the source are critical as produce crops are often grown in proximity to animal raising operations. This study evaluated whether [...] Read more.

Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EcO157) shed in cattle manure can survive for extended periods of time and intervention strategies to control this pathogen at the source are critical as produce crops are often grown in proximity to animal raising operations. This study evaluated whether neem (Azadirachta indica), known for its antimicrobial and insecticidal properties, can be used to amend manure to control EcO157. The influence of neem materials (leaf, bark, and oil) on the survival of an apple juice outbreak strain of EcO157 in dairy manure was monitored. Neem leaf and bark supplements eliminated the pathogen in less than 10 d with a D-value (days for 90% elimination) of 1.3 d. In contrast, nearly 4 log CFU EcO157/g remained after 10 d in neem-free manure control. The ethyl acetate extractable fraction of neem leaves was inhibitory to the growth of EcO157 in LB broth. Azadirachtin, a neem product with insect antifeedant properties, failed to inhibit EcO157. Application of inexpensive neem supplements to control pathogens in manure and possibly in produce fields may be an option for controlling the transfer of foodborne pathogens from farm to fork. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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1759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Irrigation Water Quality for Leafy Crops: A Perspective of Risks and Potential Solutions

by Ana Allende and James Monaghan

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(7), 7457-7477; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120707457 - 3 Jul 2015

Cited by 145 | Viewed by 13260

Abstract

There is increasing evidence of the contribution of irrigation water in the contamination of produce leading to subsequent outbreaks of foodborne illness. This is a particular risk in the production of leafy vegetables that will be eaten raw without cooking. Retailers selling leafy [...] Read more.

There is increasing evidence of the contribution of irrigation water in the contamination of produce leading to subsequent outbreaks of foodborne illness. This is a particular risk in the production of leafy vegetables that will be eaten raw without cooking. Retailers selling leafy vegetables are increasingly targeting zero-risk production systems and the associated requirements for irrigation water quality have become more stringent in regulations and quality assurance schemes (QAS) followed by growers. Growers can identify water sources that are contaminated with potential pathogens through a monitoring regime and only use water free of pathogens, but the low prevalence of pathogens makes the use of faecal indicators, particularly E. coli, a more practical approach. Where growers have to utilise water sources of moderate quality, they can reduce the risk of contamination of the edible portion of the crop (i.e., the leaves) by treating irrigation water before use through physical or chemical disinfection systems, or avoid contact between the leaves and irrigation water through the use of drip or furrow irrigation, or the use of hydroponic growing systems. This study gives an overview of the main problems in the production of leafy vegetables associated with irrigation water, including microbial risk and difficulties in water monitoring, compliance with evolving regulations and quality standards, and summarises the current alternatives available for growers to reduce microbial risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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1176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diverse Land Use and the Impact on (Irrigation) Water Quality and Need for Measures — A Case Study of a Norwegian River

by Gro S. Johannessen, Aina C. Wennberg, Ingrid Nesheim and Ingun Tryland

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(6), 6979-7001; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606979 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6225

Abstract

Surface water is used for irrigation of food plants all over the World. Such water can be of variable hygienic quality, and can be contaminated from many different sources. The association of contaminated irrigation water with contamination of fresh produce is well established, [...] Read more.

Surface water is used for irrigation of food plants all over the World. Such water can be of variable hygienic quality, and can be contaminated from many different sources. The association of contaminated irrigation water with contamination of fresh produce is well established, and many outbreaks of foodborne disease associated with fresh produce consumption have been reported. The objective of the present study was to summarize the data on fecal indicators and selected bacterial pathogens to assess the level of fecal contamination of a Norwegian river used for irrigation in an area which has a high production level of various types of food commodities. Sources for fecal pollution of the river were identified. Measures implemented to reduce discharges from the wastewater sector and agriculture, and potential measures identified for future implementation are presented and discussed in relation to potential benefits and costs. It is important that the users of the water, independent of intended use, are aware of the hygienic quality and the potential interventions that may be applied. Our results suggest that contamination of surface water is a complex web of many factors and that several measures and interventions on different levels are needed to achieve a sound river and safe irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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1527 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Comparison of Six Chromogenic Agar Media for the Isolation of a Broad Variety of Non-O157 Shigatoxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC) Serogroups

by Bavo Verhaegen, Koen De Reu, Marc Heyndrickx and Lieven De Zutter

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(6), 6965-6978; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606965 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 13989

Abstract

The isolation of non-O157 STEC from food samples has proved to be challenging. The selection of a suitable selective isolation agar remains problematic. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively and quantitatively evaluate six chromogenic agar media for the isolation of STEC: [...] Read more.

The isolation of non-O157 STEC from food samples has proved to be challenging. The selection of a suitable selective isolation agar remains problematic. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively and quantitatively evaluate six chromogenic agar media for the isolation of STEC: Tryptone Bile X-glucuronide agar (TBX), Rainbow^® Agar O157 (RB), Rapid E. coli O157:H7 (RE), Modified MacConkey Agar (mMac), CHROMagar^TM STEC (Chr ST) and chromID^TM EHEC (Chr ID). During this study, 45 E. coli strains were used, including 39 STEC strains belonging to 16 different O serogroups and 6 non-STEC E. coli. All E. coli strains were able to grow on TBX and RB, whereas one STEC strain was unable to grow on Chr ID and a number of other STEC strains did not grow on mMac, CHROMagar STEC and Rapid E. coli O157:H7. However, only the latter three agars were selective enough to completely inhibit the growth of the non-STEC E. coli. Our conclusion was that paired use of a more selective agar such as CHROMagar STEC together with a less selective agar like TBX or Chr ID might be the best solution for isolating non-O157 STEC from food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of Escherichia coli, Campylobcter, Salmonella and Shiga-Toxin Producing E. coli in Norwegian Primary Strawberry Production

by Gro S. Johannessen, Karl F. Eckner, Nina Heiberg, Marte Monshaugen, Mumtaz Begum, Marianne Økland and Helga R. Høgåsen

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(6), 6919-6932; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606919 - 17 Jun 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6229

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the bacteriological quality of strawberries at harvest and to study risk factors such as irrigation water, soil and picker’s hand cleanliness. Four farms were visited during the harvest season in 2012. Samples of strawberries, irrigation [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to investigate the bacteriological quality of strawberries at harvest and to study risk factors such as irrigation water, soil and picker’s hand cleanliness. Four farms were visited during the harvest season in 2012. Samples of strawberries, irrigation water, soil and hand swabs were collected and analyzed for E. coli, Campylobacter, Salmonella and STEC Although fecal indicators and pathogens were found in environmental samples, only one of 80 samples of strawberries was positive for E. coli (1.0 log₁₀ cfu/g) and pathogens were not detected in any of the strawberry samples. The water samples from all irrigation sources were contaminated with E. coli in numbers ranging from 0 to 3.3 log₁₀ cfu/g. Campylobacter (8/16 samples) and Salmonella (1/16 samples) were isolated from samples with high numbers of E. coli. The water samples collected from a lake had lower numbers of E. coli than the samples from rivers and a stream. The present study indicated continuous background contamination in the primary production environment. Although the background contamination was not reflected on the strawberries tested here, the results must be interpreted with caution due to the limited number of samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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1246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Method for the Preparation of Chicken Liver Pâté that Reliably Destroys Campylobacters

by Mike Hutchison, Dawn Harrison, Ian Richardson and Monika Tchórzewska

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(5), 4652-4669; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120504652 - 28 Apr 2015

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 9655

Abstract

This study devised a protocol for the manufacture of commercial quantities of chicken liver pâté that reliably destroyed campylobacters. A literature search identified 40 pâté manufacture recipes. Recipes stages with a potential to be antimicrobial were assembled to form a new protocol that [...] Read more.

This study devised a protocol for the manufacture of commercial quantities of chicken liver pâté that reliably destroyed campylobacters. A literature search identified 40 pâté manufacture recipes. Recipes stages with a potential to be antimicrobial were assembled to form a new protocol that included washing with organic acid, freeze-thaw and flambé in alcohol. Naturally-contaminated, high-risk livers were obtained from clearance flocks at slaughter and the effect of each stage of the protocol on Campylobacter populations was determined. Organic acid washing changed the color of the liver surfaces. However, there were no significant differences between liver surface color changes when a range of concentrations of lactic acid and ethanoic acid washes were compared by reflective spectrophotometry. A 5% (w/v) acid wash reduced numbers of indigenous campylobacters by around 1.5 log₁₀ CFU/g for both acids. The use of a Bain Marie was found to more reproducibly apply heat compared with pan-frying. Antimicrobial recipe stages reduced the numbers of campylobacters, but not significantly if thermal processing was ineffective. Cooking to 63°C was confirmed to be a critical control point for campylobacters cooked in a Bain Marie. Organoleptic and sensory assessment of pâté determined an overall preference for pâté made from frozen livers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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Review

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Open AccessReview

Food Safety in Low and Middle Income Countries

by Delia Grace

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(9), 10490-10507; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120910490 - 27 Aug 2015

Cited by 283 | Viewed by 20793

Abstract

Evidence on foodborne disease (FBD) in low and middle income countries (LMICs) is still limited, but important studies in recent years have broadened our understanding. These suggest that developing country consumers are concerned about FBD; that most of the known burden of FBD [...] Read more.

Evidence on foodborne disease (FBD) in low and middle income countries (LMICs) is still limited, but important studies in recent years have broadened our understanding. These suggest that developing country consumers are concerned about FBD; that most of the known burden of FBD disease comes from biological hazards; and, that most FBD is the result of consumption of fresh, perishable foods sold in informal markets. FBD is likely to increase in LMICs as the result of massive increases in the consumption of risky foods (livestock and fish products and produce) and lengthening and broadening value chains. Although intensification of agricultural production is a strong trend, so far agro-industrial production and modern retail have not demonstrated clear advantages in food safety and disease control. There is limited evidence on effective, sustainable and scalable interventions to improve food safety in domestic markets. Training farmers on input use and good practices often benefits those farmers trained, but has not been scalable or sustainable, except where good practices are linked to eligibility for export. Training informal value chain actors who receive business benefits from being trained has been more successful. New technologies, growing public concern and increased emphasis on food system governance can also improve food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

142 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microbiological Food Safety for Vulnerable People

by Barbara M. Lund

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(8), 10117-10132; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120810117 - 21 Aug 2015

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 9860

Abstract

Foodborne pathogens are more likely to cause infection and to result in serious consequences in vulnerable people than in healthy adults. People with some increase in susceptibility may form nearly 20% of the population in the UK and the USA. Conditions leading to [...] Read more.

Foodborne pathogens are more likely to cause infection and to result in serious consequences in vulnerable people than in healthy adults. People with some increase in susceptibility may form nearly 20% of the population in the UK and the USA. Conditions leading to increased susceptibility are listed. The main factors leading to foodborne disease caused by major pathogens are outlined and examples are given of outbreaks resulting from these factors. Measures to prevent foodborne disease include procedures based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point principles and prerequisite programmes and, especially for vulnerable people, the use of lower-risk foods in place of higher—risk products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

298 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effect of Disinfectants on Preventing the Cross-Contamination of Pathogens in Fresh Produce Washing Water

by Jennifer L. Banach, Imca Sampers, Sam Van Haute and H.J. (Ine) Van der Fels-Klerx

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12(8), 8658-8677; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120808658 - 23 Jul 2015

Cited by 166 | Viewed by 12985

Abstract

The potential cross-contamination of pathogens between clean and contaminated produce in the washing tank is highly dependent on the water quality. Process wash water disinfectants are applied to maintain the water quality during processing. The review examines the efficacy of process wash water [...] Read more.

The potential cross-contamination of pathogens between clean and contaminated produce in the washing tank is highly dependent on the water quality. Process wash water disinfectants are applied to maintain the water quality during processing. The review examines the efficacy of process wash water disinfectants during produce processing with the aim to prevent cross-contamination of pathogens. Process wash water disinfection requires short contact times so microorganisms are rapidly inactivated. Free chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and peracetic acid were considered suitable disinfectants. A disinfectant’s reactivity with the organic matter will determine the disinfectant residual, which is of paramount importance for microbial inactivation and should be monitored in situ. Furthermore, the chemical and worker safety, and the legislative framework will determine the suitability of a disinfection technique. Current research often focuses on produce decontamination and to a lesser extent on preventing cross-contamination. Further research on a sanitizer’s efficacy in the washing water is recommended at the laboratory scale, in particular with experimental designs reflecting industrial conditions. Validation on the industrial scale is warranted to better understand the overall effects of a sanitizer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety)

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