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Public Health Implications of Microbiological Contamination in the Integrated Water Cycle

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2020) | Viewed by 32574

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Elisabetta Carraro

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Guest Editor

Department of Science of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Turin, 10124 Torino, TO, Italy
Interests: waterborne pathogens; microbiological water quality; environmental microbiology analytical methods; water microbiological indicator of contamination; wastewater-based epidemiology; treated wastewater microbiological quality; airborne PM genotoxic effect
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Dr. Silvia Bonetta

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Guest Editor

Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, 10124 Torino, TO, Italy
Interests: emerging pathogens; environment; antibiotic resistance; molecular methods; water; food
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Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

Waterborne microbial diseases remain an important burden on human health all over the world, even in high-income countries.

The study of the impact on public health of microbiological contamination along the integrated water cycle (IWC) is a fundamental issue. The assessment of the spreading of human pathogens vehicled by the environmental water matrices (e.g., water supply, drinking water, wastewater, recreational water) represents an essential activity for health protection.

This Special Issue will treat the implication of direct exposure (i.e., drinking water, recreational water, wastewater discharges to waterways) or indirect exposure (i.e., groundwater and reclaimed water used for irrigation and aquaculture). The Issue is open to any subject area related to microbial water matrices relating to public health risk.

This includes:

Microbial spreading factors in the IWC, such as climate changes, microbial selective pressure and adaptive selection, sewage and livestock manure management, globalization implications (trade, tourism, etc.);
New sampling and detection methods for human pathogens (bacteria, fungi, virus, parasites);
Monitoring of water matrices quality, with particular reference to emerging human pathogens;
Analysis of the relationship between water matrices microbial fingerprint (environmental microbioma) and human pathogens;
Novel indicators of water contamination;
Spreading of bacterial antibiotic resistance in the IWC;
Health implications related to reclaimed water;
Interventions to improve water quality, such as microbiological risk assessment, water safety plan application, guidelines, and regulation revisions.

Prof. Dr. Elisabetta Carraro
Dr. Silvia Bonetta
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

Human pathogenic bacteria, fungi, virus, parasites
Public health
Integrated water cycle
Water supply, drinking water, wastewater, recreational water, reclaimed water
Microbial spreading factors
Water sampling and detection methods
Water quality monitoring
Emerging waterborne human pathogens
Water microbioma
Novel water indicators
Antibiotic resistance
Microbiological risk assessment
Water safety plan

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 11543 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Behavior of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter aerogenes in Water from Filter Jugs

by Rossella Briancesco, Stefania Paduano, Maurizio Semproni, Luca Vitanza and Lucia Bonadonna

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(21), 8263; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218263 - 9 Nov 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2824

Abstract

Careless use conditions of filter jugs were applied to simulate and evaluate the behavior of two ubiquitous aquatic bacterial species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter aerogenes. According to a reference protocol, nine different jugs of popular brands sold in the Italian market were used for the test. Separately, a suspension of the two bacteria was spiked in water used for filling the jugs. The concentration of the test organisms and total aerobic microbial count (TAMC) was measured daily in the filtered water along a period corresponding to the cartridge lifetime. Results showed a different trend of bacterial behavior. E. aerogenes was detectable exclusively on the first day after jug filling, while P. aeruginosa confirmed its persistence over time in all the jugs and its ability to potentially colonize surfaces and cartridges. The TAMC was detected at a concentration range from 10² to 10⁷ CFU/100 mL in all the tests, high values that were not far from those raised in bottled flat natural mineral water weeks after bottling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications of Microbiological Contamination in the Integrated Water Cycle)

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15 pages, 1458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quality Assessment of Three Types of Drinking Water Sources in Guinea-Bissau

by Aducabe Bancessi, Luís Catarino, Maria José Silva, Armindo Ferreira, Elizabeth Duarte and Teresa Nazareth

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(19), 7254; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197254 - 4 Oct 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4224

Abstract

The lack of access to safe drinking water causes important health problems, mainly in developing countries. In the West African country Guinea-Bissau, waterborne diseases are recognised by WHO as major infectious diseases. This study analysed the microbiological and physicochemical parameters of drinking water in the capital Bissau and its surroundings. Twenty-two sites belonging to different water sources (piped water, tubewells and shallow wells) were surveyed twice a day for three weeks, in both dry and wet seasons. Most of the microbiological parameters were out of the acceptable ranges in all types of water and both seasons and tended to worsen in the wet season. Moreover, in Bissau, the levels of faecal contamination in piped water increased from the holes to the consumer (tap/fountain). Several physicochemical variables showed values out of the internationally accepted ranges. Both well sources showed low-pH water (4.87–5.59), with high nitrite and iron levels in the wet season and high hexavalent chromium concentration in the dry season. The residual chlorine never reached the minimum recommended level in any of the water sources or seasons, suggesting a high risk of contamination. Results reveal a lack of quality in the three water sources analysed, coherent with the high number of diarrheal cases in the country. There is an urgent need to improve sanitarian conditions to reduce the disease burden caused by these waterborne illnesses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications of Microbiological Contamination in the Integrated Water Cycle)

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16 pages, 1625 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Impact of Freeze–Thaw Cycles on Die-Off of E. coli and Intestinal Enterococci in Deer and Dairy Faeces: Implications for Landscape Contamination of Watercourses

by Emmanuel O. Afolabi, Richard S. Quilliam and David M. Oliver

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(19), 6999; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17196999 - 24 Sep 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2558

Abstract

Characterising faecal indicator organism (FIO) survival in the environment is important for informing land management and minimising public health risk to downstream water users. However, key gaps in knowledge include understanding how wildlife contribute to catchment-wide FIO sources and how FIO survival is affected by low environmental temperatures. The aim of this study was to quantify E. coli and intestinal enterococci die-off in dairy cow versus red deer faecal sources exposed to repeated freeze–thaw cycles under controlled laboratory conditions. Survival of FIOs in water exposed to freeze–thaw was also investigated to help interpret survival responses. Both E. coli and intestinal enterococci were capable of surviving sub-freezing conditions with the faeces from both animals able to sustain relatively high FIO concentrations, as indicated by modelling, and observations revealing persistence in excess of 11 days and in some cases confirmed beyond 22 days. Die-off responses of deer-derived FIOs in both faeces and water exposed to low temperatures provide much needed information to enable better accounting of the varied catchment sources of faecal pollution and results from this study help constrain the parameterisation of die-off coefficients to better inform more integrated modelling and decision-making for microbial water quality management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications of Microbiological Contamination in the Integrated Water Cycle)

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17 pages, 2313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterisation of Microbial Community Associated with Different Disinfection Treatments in Hospital hot Water Networks

by Stefania Paduano, Isabella Marchesi, Maria Elisabetta Casali, Federica Valeriani, Giuseppina Frezza, Elena Vecchi, Luca Sircana, Vincenzo Romano Spica, Paola Borella and Annalisa Bargellini

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(6), 2158; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062158 - 24 Mar 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3421

Abstract

Many disinfection treatments can be adopted for controlling opportunistic pathogens in hospital water networks in order to reduce infection risk for immunocompromised patients. Each method has limits and strengths and it could determine modifications on bacterial community. The aim of our investigation was to study under real-life conditions the microbial community associated with different chemical (monochloramine, hydrogen peroxide, chlorine dioxide) and non-chemical (hyperthermia) treatments, continuously applied since many years in four hot water networks of the same hospital. Municipal cold water, untreated secondary, and treated hot water were analysed for microbiome characterization by 16S amplicon sequencing. Cold waters had a common microbial profile at genera level. The hot water bacterial profiles differed according to treatment. Our results confirm the effectiveness of disinfection strategies in our hospital for controlling potential pathogens such as Legionella, as the investigated genera containing opportunistic pathogens were absent or had relative abundances ≤1%, except for non-tuberculous mycobacteria, Sphingomonas, Ochrobactrum and Brevundimonas. Monitoring the microbial complexity of healthcare water networks through 16S amplicon sequencing is an innovative and effective approach useful for Public Health purpose in order to verify possible modifications of microbiota associated with disinfection treatments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications of Microbiological Contamination in the Integrated Water Cycle)

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8 pages, 327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Legionella Detection in Water Networks as per ISO 11731:2017: Can Different Filter Pore Sizes and Direct Placement on Culture Media Influence Laboratory Results?

by Osvalda De Giglio, Giusy Diella, Paolo Trerotoli, Michela Consonni, Roberta Palermo, Marina Tesauro, Pasqualina Laganà, Gabriella Serio and Maria Teresa Montagna

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(6), 2077; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062077 - 20 Mar 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3138

Abstract

Determination of Legionella concentrations in water networks is useful for predicting legionellosis risks. The standard culture technique using concentration with membranes filters is the most commonly used method for environmental surveillance of Legionella. The aim of this study was to verify whether filtration with different filter pore sizes (0.2 and 0.45 µm) according to (ISO) 11731:2017, followed by directly placing them on culture media, can influence Legionella detection. Three laboratories participated in an experimental study that tested a known suspension of Legionella pneumophila (Lpn) serogroup 1 (ATCC 33152) (approximate final cell density of 15 CFU/mL). E. coli (ATCC 11775) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 25668) were included as control tests. The average (95% CI) percentage of recovery of Lpn was 65% using 0.45-µm filters and 15% using 0.2-µm filters (p < 0.0001). For control tests, the average (95% CI) percentage of recovery was higher with 0.45 vs. 0.2 µm filters: 97% vs. 64% for Escherichia coli (p < 0.00001) and 105% vs. 97% (p = 0.0244) for P. aeruginosa. Our results showed that the 0.45-µm filters provided the greatest detection of Legionella. Because the current national guidelines leave the choice of membrane porosity to the operator, experimental studies are important for directing operators towards a conscious choice to standardize Legionella environmental surveillance methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications of Microbiological Contamination in the Integrated Water Cycle)

18 pages, 2228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nine-Year Nationwide Environmental Surveillance of Hepatitis E Virus in Urban Wastewaters in Italy (2011–2019)

by Marcello Iaconelli, Giusy Bonanno Ferraro, Pamela Mancini, Elisabetta Suffredini, Carolina Veneri, Anna Rita Ciccaglione, Roberto Bruni, Simonetta Della Libera, Francesco Bignami, Massimo Brambilla, Dario De Medici, David Brandtner, Pietro Schembri, Stefania D’Amato and Giuseppina La Rosa

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(6), 2059; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062059 - 20 Mar 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4556

Abstract

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging causative agent of acute hepatitis worldwide. To provide insights into the epidemiology of HEV in Italy, a large-scale investigation was conducted into urban sewage over nine years (2011–2019), collecting 1374 sewage samples from 48 wastewater treatment plants located in all the 20 regions of Italy. Broadly reactive primers targeting the ORF1 and ORF2 regions were used for the detection and typing of HEV, followed by Sanger and next generation sequencing (NGS). Real-time RT-qPCR was also used to attempt quantification of positive samples. HEV RNA detection occurred in 74 urban sewage samples (5.4%), with a statistically significant higher frequency (7.1%) in central Italy. Fifty-six samples were characterized as G3 strains and 18 as G1. While the detection of G3 strains occurred in all the surveillance period, G1 strains were mainly detected in 2011–2012, and never in 2017–2019. Typing was achieved in 2 samples (3f subtype). Viral concentrations in quantifiable samples ranged from 1.2 × 10³ g.c./L to 2.8 × 10⁴ g.c./L. Our results suggest the considerable circulation of the virus in the Italian population, despite a relatively small number of notified cases, a higher occurrence in central Italy, and a noteworthy predominance of G3 strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications of Microbiological Contamination in the Integrated Water Cycle)

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14 pages, 999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two Drinking Water Outbreaks Caused by Wastewater Intrusion Including Sapovirus in Finland

by Ari Kauppinen, Tarja Pitkänen, Haider Al-Hello, Leena Maunula, Anna-Maria Hokajärvi, Ruska Rimhanen-Finne and Ilkka T. Miettinen

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(22), 4376; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224376 - 9 Nov 2019

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 4925

Abstract

Drinking water outbreaks occur worldwide and may be caused by several factors, including raw water contamination, treatment deficiencies, and distribution network failure. This study describes two drinking water outbreaks in Finland in 2016 (outbreak I) and 2018 (outbreak II). Both outbreaks caused approximately 450 illness cases and were due to drinking water pipe breakage and subsequent wastewater intrusion into the distribution system. In both outbreaks, the sapovirus was found in patient samples as the main causative agent. In addition, adenoviruses and Dientamoeba fragilis (outbreak I), and noroviruses, astroviruses, enterotoxigenic and enterohemorragic Escherichia coli (ETEC and EHEC, respectively) and Plesiomonas shigelloides (outbreak II) were detected in patient samples. Water samples were analyzed for the selected pathogens largely based on the results of patient samples. In addition, traditional fecal indicator bacteria and host-specific microbial source tracking (MST) markers (GenBac3 and HF183) were analyzed from water. In drinking water, sapovirus and enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) were found in outbreak II. The MST markers proved useful in the detection of contamination and to ensure the success of contaminant removal from the water distribution system. As mitigation actions, boil water advisory, alternative drinking water sources and chlorination were organized to restrict the outbreaks and to clean the contaminated distribution network. This study highlights the emerging role of sapoviruses as a waterborne pathogen and warrants the need for testing of multiple viruses during outbreak investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications of Microbiological Contamination in the Integrated Water Cycle)

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14 pages, 1944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Characterization of Antimicrobial-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from a Mixed-Use Watershed in Northeast Georgia, USA

by Sohyun Cho, Hoang Anh Thi Nguyen, Jacob M. McDonald, Tiffanie A. Woodley, Lari M. Hiott, John B. Barrett, Charlene R. Jackson and Jonathan G. Frye

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(19), 3761; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193761 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6202

Abstract

In order to determine the role of surface water in the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant (AR) bacteria, water samples were collected quarterly from 2015 to 2016 from a mixed-use watershed in Georgia. In our previous study, 496 Escherichia coli were isolated from surface water, out of which, 34 isolates were resistant to antimicrobials. For the current study, these 34 AR E. coli were characterized using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, AR gene detection, plasmid replicon typing, class I integron detection, and multi-locus sequence typing. Genes were identified as conferring resistance to azithromycin (mph(A)); β-lactams (bla_CMY, bla_CTX, bla_TEM); chloramphenicol (floR); streptomycin (strA, strB); sulfisoxazole (sul1, sul2); tetracycline (tetA, tetB, tetC); and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (dhfr5, dhfr12). Five ciprofloxacin- and/or nalidixic-resistant isolates contained point mutations in gyrA and/or parC. Most of the isolates (n = 28) carried plasmids and three were positive for class I integrons. Twenty-nine sequence types (ST) were detected, including three epidemic urinary-tract-infection-associated ST131 isolates. One of the ST131 E. coli isolates exhibited an extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) phenotype and carried bla_CTX-M-15 and bla_TEM-1. To our knowledge, this is the first study on the emergence of an ESBL-producing E. coli ST131 from environmental water in the USA, which poses a potential risk to human health through the recreational, agricultural, or municipal use of this natural resource. This study identified E. coli with AR mechanisms to commonly used antimicrobials and carrying mobile genetic elements, which could transfer AR genes to other bacteria in the aquatic environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications of Microbiological Contamination in the Integrated Water Cycle)

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