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11 pages, 663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Workers’ Occupational Dust Exposure and Pulmonary Function Assessment: Cross-Sectional Study in China

by Wei He, Nan Jin, Huaxin Deng, Qi Zhao, Fang Yuan, Fengqiong Chen, Huadong Zhang and Xiaoni Zhong

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(17), 11065; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191711065 - 4 Sep 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3457

Abstract

Objective: This study aims to determine the occupational health status of workers exposed to dust and the risk factors of lung function decline, to provide a basis for formulating corresponding occupational disease-prevention strategies. Methods: Data on 2045 workers exposed to dust, including their [...] Read more.

Objective: This study aims to determine the occupational health status of workers exposed to dust and the risk factors of lung function decline, to provide a basis for formulating corresponding occupational disease-prevention strategies. Methods: Data on 2045 workers exposed to dust, including their age, gender, exposure time, chest X-ray test results, and pulmonary function test results, were obtained from a key occupational disease monitoring project in Chongqing, China, in 2021. Chi-square tests and multifactorial logistic regression, and other methods, were used for statistical analysis. Results: The prevalence of pneumoconiosis-like changes was 0.83% (17/2045), and the prevalence of abnormal forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV₁), forced vital capacity (FVC), and FEV₁/FVC was 4.25% (87/2045), 12.81% (262/2045), and 1.47% (30/2045), respectively. With increasing worker’s age, the prevalence of abnormal pneumoconiosis-like changes (p = 0.0065), FEV₁ (p = 0.0002), FVC (p < 0.0001), and FEV₁/FVC (p = 0.0055) all increased. Factors such as age, exposure duration, enterprise size, and dust exposure concentration were associated with abnormal lung function. Conclusions: Workers exposed to occupational dust have a high rate of abnormal lung function. The government, enterprises, and individuals should pay attention to occupational dust exposure, and various effective measures should be actively taken to protect the life and health of workers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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14 pages, 1247 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occupational Low-Dose Radiation Affects the Expression of Immune Checkpoint of Medical Radiologists

by Chen Wang, Changfu Hao, Kai Dai, Yuzheng Li, Jie Jiao, Zhuoya Niu, Xiao Xu, Xuedan Deng, Jing He and Wu Yao

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(12), 7105; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127105 - 9 Jun 2022

Viewed by 1838

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression of immune checkpoint cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) and T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (TIM-3) in the peripheral blood T lymphocytes of medical radiologists. The study incorporated 100 male medical radiologists [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression of immune checkpoint cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) and T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (TIM-3) in the peripheral blood T lymphocytes of medical radiologists. The study incorporated 100 male medical radiologists and 107 male healthy controls. The expressions of CTLA-4 and TIM-3 among CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes were detected by flow cytometry. The expression levels of CTLA-4 and TIM-3 in the CD4+T cells of radiation workers were lower than those of healthy controls (p < 0.05). Correlation analysis showed that the CD8+CTLA-4 expression level was significantly positively correlated with individual cumulative dose (r_s = 0.260, p = 0.001, <0.05), while the expression level of CD8+TIM-3 was negatively correlated (r_s = −0.180, p = 0.027, <0.05). Low-dose radiation exposure affects the expression of CTLA-4 and TIM-3 in human peripheral blood T lymphocytes. Future studies need to focus on exploring the mechanisms by which CTLA-4 and TIM-3 expression changes in response to low-dose radiation exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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13 pages, 1677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Elemental Characteristics and Human Health Risk of PM_2.5 during Haze Episode and Non-Haze Episode in Chiang Rai Province, Thailand

by Sarima Niampradit, Wissanupong Kliengchuay, Rachaneekorn Mingkhwan, Suwalee Worakhunpiset, Nuttapohn Kiangkoo, Suntorn Sudsandee, Anuttara Hongthong, Weerayuth Siriratruengsuk, Thunyaluk Muangsuwan and Kraichat Tantrakarnapa

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(10), 6127; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106127 - 18 May 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3081

Abstract

Fine particle matter (PM_2.5) was directly related to seasonal weather, and has become the influencing factor of air quality that is harmful for human health in Chiang Rai province. The aims were determining the elemental composition in PM_2.5 and human [...] Read more.

Fine particle matter (PM_2.5) was directly related to seasonal weather, and has become the influencing factor of air quality that is harmful for human health in Chiang Rai province. The aims were determining the elemental composition in PM_2.5 and human health risk in haze (March 2021) and non-haze episodes (July–August 2021). Nine elements in PM_2.5 were measured by using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, and an enrichment factor was used to identify the emission source. The results showed that the average concentration of PM_2.5 was 63.07 μg/m³ in haze episodes, and 25.00 μg/m³ in a non-haze episode. The maximum concentration was 116.7 μg/m³ in March. The majority of elements originated from anthropogenic sources. In haze episodes, PM_2.5 mean concentration was approximately 4.2 times that of the WHO guidelines (15 μg/m³ 24 h), and 1.3 times that of the Thai Ambient Air Quality Standard (50 μg/m³). The analysis of backward air mass trajectory showed that transboundary and local sources significantly influenced PM_2.5 at the monitoring site in the sampling period. In the health risk assessment, the non-carcinogenic risk of Cd was the highest, with a Hazard Quotient (HQ) of 0.048, and the cancer risk of Cr was classified as the highest cancer risk, with the values of 1.29 × 10⁻⁵, higher than the minimum acceptable level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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17 pages, 4141 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Exposure of Workers at a Busy Road Node to PM_2.5: Occupational Risk Characterisation and Mitigation Measures

by Obuks A. Ejohwomu, Majeed Oladokun, Olalekan S. Oshodi, Oyegoke Teslim Bukoye, David John Edwards, Nwabueze Emekwuru, Olumide Adenuga, Adegboyega Sotunbo, Ola Uduku, Mobolanle Balogun and Rose Alani

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(8), 4636; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084636 - 12 Apr 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2742

Abstract

The link between air pollution and health burden in urban areas has been well researched. This has led to a plethora of effective policy-induced monitoring and interventions in the global south. However, the implication of pollutant species like PM_2.5 in low middle [...] Read more.

The link between air pollution and health burden in urban areas has been well researched. This has led to a plethora of effective policy-induced monitoring and interventions in the global south. However, the implication of pollutant species like PM_2.5 in low middle income countries (LMIC) still remains a concern. By adopting a positivist philosophy and deductive reasoning, this research addresses the question, to what extent can we deliver effective interventions to improve air quality at a building structure located at a busy road node in a LMIC? This study assessed the temporal variability of pollutants around the university environment to provide a novel comparative evaluation of occupational shift patterns and the use of facemasks as risk control interventions. The findings indicate that the concentration of PM_2.5, which can be as high as 300% compared to the WHO reference, was exacerbated by episodic events. With a notable decay period of approximately one-week, adequate protection and/or avoidance of hotspots are required for at-risk individuals within a busy road node. The use of masks with 80% efficiency provides sufficient mitigation against exposure risks to elevated PM_2.5 concentrations without occupational shift, and 50% efficiency with at least ‘2 h ON, 2 h OFF’ occupational shift scenario. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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11 pages, 506 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bayesian Hierarchical Modelling of Historical Data of the South African Coal Mining Industry for Compliance Testing

by Felix Made, Ngianga-Bakwin Kandala and Derk Brouwer

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(8), 4442; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084442 - 7 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1716

Abstract

Bayesian hierarchical framework for exposure data compliance testing is highly recommended in occupational hygiene. However, it has not been used for coal dust exposure compliance testing in South Africa (SA). The Bayesian analysis incorporates prior information, which increases solid decision making regarding risk [...] Read more.

Bayesian hierarchical framework for exposure data compliance testing is highly recommended in occupational hygiene. However, it has not been used for coal dust exposure compliance testing in South Africa (SA). The Bayesian analysis incorporates prior information, which increases solid decision making regarding risk management. This study compared the posterior 95th percentile (P95) of the Bayesian non-informative and informative prior from historical data relative to the occupational exposure limit (OEL) and exposure categories, and the South African Mining Industry Code of Practice (SAMI CoP) approach. A total of nine homogenous exposure groups (HEGs) with a combined 243 coal mine workers’ coal dust exposure data were included in this study. Bayesian framework with Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation to draw a full P95 posterior distribution relative to the OEL was used to investigate compliance. We obtained prior information from historical data and employed non-informative prior distribution to generate the posterior findings. The findings were compared to the SAMI CoP. The SAMI CoP 90th percentile (P90) indicated that one HEG was compliant (below the OEL), while none of the HEGs in the Bayesian methods were compliant. The analysis using non-informative prior indicated a higher variability of exposure than the informative prior according to the posterior GSD. The median P95 from the non-informative prior were slightly lower with wider 95% credible intervals (CrI) than the informative prior. All the HEGs in both Bayesian approaches were in exposure category four (poorly controlled), with the posterior probabilities slightly lower in the non-informative uniform prior distribution. All the methods mainly indicated non-compliance from the HEGs. The non-informative prior, however, showed a possible potential of allocating HEGs to a lower exposure category, but with high uncertainty compared to the informative prior distribution from historical data. Bayesian statistics with informative prior derived from historical data should be highly encouraged in coal dust overexposure assessments in South Africa for correct decision making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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17 pages, 13849 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Historical Asbestos Measurements in Denmark—A National Database

by Ana Sofia Fonseca, Amalie Kofoed Jørgensen, Bianca Xuan Larsen, Marina Moser-Johansen, Esben Meulengracht Flachs, Niels Erik Ebbehøj, Jakob Hjort Bønløkke, Trine Olesen Østergaard, Jesper Bælum, David Lee Sherson, Vivi Schlünssen, Harald William Meyer and Keld Alstrup Jensen

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(2), 643; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020643 - 6 Jan 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4072

Abstract

Objectives: Due to the long lag-time for health outcomes, historical asbestos exposure measurements are valuable to support assessments of associated occupational health effects, and also to assess time trends and effects of preventive measures. Methods: Different sources of stored data were collated, assessed [...] Read more.

Objectives: Due to the long lag-time for health outcomes, historical asbestos exposure measurements are valuable to support assessments of associated occupational health effects, and also to assess time trends and effects of preventive measures. Methods: Different sources of stored data were collated, assessed and refined to create a harmonized database on historical asbestos fibre concentrations measured in specific work tasks and different industries. The final database contains 9236 asbestos measurements from Danish workplaces collected from 1971 to 1997. Results: The geometric mean of asbestos concentrations in different occupations and tasks ranged from 0.003 to 35 fibres cm⁻³. Highest concentrations were registered during handling of asbestos products in the construction services during the period 1981–1997. Although all the measured asbestos exposures without the use of respiratory equipment by the worker in the period of 1971–1997 exceeded the current 8-h time-weighted average exposure limit of 0.1 fibres cm⁻³, the majority of samples collected in the earlier period of 1971 to 1980 did not exceed the exposure limit of 2 fibres cm⁻³, which was in place at the time. All exposure data obtained from 1980 and onwards were found to be one seventh of the mean fibre concentrations in the previous measurement period. The impact of time shows a clear exponentially decreasing trend-line. Conclusions: Despite limitations in coverage of different occupations and tasks associated with the inventoried historical asbestos measurements, the data are helpful to identify specific work scenarios within an industry, where relatively high asbestos exposure levels may still occur or have occurred from 1971 to 1997. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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12 pages, 2177 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intervention of an Upgraded Ventilation System and Effects of the COVID-19 Lockdown on Air Quality at Birmingham New Street Railway Station

by Matt Clegg, John Edward Thornes, Debasree Banerjee, Christina Mitsakou, Azhar Quaiyoom, Juana Maria Delgado-Saborit and Revati Phalkey

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(1), 575; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010575 - 5 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6177

Abstract

High NO₂ concentrations (long term average of 383 µg/m³ in 2016/2017) recorded at Birmingham New Street railway station have resulted in the upgrade of the bi-directional fan system to aid wind dispersion within the enclosed platform environment. This paper attempts to [...] Read more.

High NO₂ concentrations (long term average of 383 µg/m³ in 2016/2017) recorded at Birmingham New Street railway station have resulted in the upgrade of the bi-directional fan system to aid wind dispersion within the enclosed platform environment. This paper attempts to examine how successful this intervention has been in improving air quality for both passengers and workers within the station. New air pollution data in 2020 has enabled comparisons to the 2016/2017 monitoring campaign revealing a 23–42% decrease in measured NO₂ concentrations. The new levels of NO₂ are below the Occupational Health standards but still well above the EU Public Health Standards. This reduction, together with a substantial decrease (up to 81%) in measured Particulate Matter (PM) concentrations, can most likely be attributed to the new fan system effectiveness. Carbon Monoxide levels were well below Occupational and Public Health Standards at all times. The COVID-19 pandemic “initial lockdown” period has also allowed an insight into the resultant air quality at lower rail-traffic intensities, which produced a further reduction in air pollutants, to roughly half the pre-lockdown concentrations. This study shows the scope of improvement that can be achieved through an engineering solution implemented to improve the ventilation system of an enclosed railway station. Further reduction in air pollution would require additional approaches, such as the removal of diesel engine exhaust emissions via the adoption of electric or diesel-electric hybrid powered services. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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11 pages, 564 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Cotton Dust-Related Allergic Asthma: Prevalence and Associated Factors among Textile Workers in Nam Dinh Province, Vietnam

by Tran Thi Thuy Ha, Bui My Hanh, Nguyen Van Son, Hoang Thị Giang, Nguyen Thanh Hai, Vu Minh Thuc and Pham Minh Khue

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9813; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189813 - 17 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3433

Abstract

Objective: To determine the prevalence of cotton dust-related allergic asthma and associated factors among textile workers in Nam Dinh province, Vietnam. Methods: A cross-sectional study was performed with 1082 workers in two textile garment companies using the asthma diagnostic criteria of the GINA [...] Read more.

Objective: To determine the prevalence of cotton dust-related allergic asthma and associated factors among textile workers in Nam Dinh province, Vietnam. Methods: A cross-sectional study was performed with 1082 workers in two textile garment companies using the asthma diagnostic criteria of the GINA (Global Initiative for Asthma) 2016 guidelines. Results: Among study participants, 11.9% had suspected asthma symptoms, 7.4% were diagnosed with asthma, and 4.3% (3.6% in men and 4.5% in women) were diagnosed with cotton dust-related allergic asthma. Overweight, seniority more than 10 years, history of asthma, allergic rhinitis, family history of allergy, and exposure to cotton dust from more than one hour per day in the working environment were found to be important predictors of cotton dust-related allergic asthma among textile workers. Conclusions: Textile workers in two companies in Nam Dinh, Vietnam had a high prevalence of dust-related allergic asthma compared to estimates from the general population. There is a need to design appropriate measures of prevention, screening, and care for dust-related asthma in the textile industry. Further evaluation with better exposure assessment is necessary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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8 pages, 295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Noise Pollution and Its Correlations with Occupational Noise-Induced Hearing Loss in Cement Plants in Vietnam

by Tinh Thai, Petr Kučera and Ales Bernatik

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(8), 4229; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084229 - 16 Apr 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3791

Abstract

Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) is a global issue that is caused by many factors. The purpose of this study was to survey noise level to identify NIHL and its relationship with other factors in cement plants in Vietnam. Noise level was measured at [...] Read more.

Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) is a global issue that is caused by many factors. The purpose of this study was to survey noise level to identify NIHL and its relationship with other factors in cement plants in Vietnam. Noise level was measured at one cement plant and three cement grinding stations located in the South of Vietnam. The audiometric data of exposed workers were surveyed to determine NIHL. Finally, the relationship between NIHL and noise level in cement plants was determined. The results show that noise level in almost all processes exceeded the permissible exposure limit (PEL). In this study, 42 cases (10% of exposed workers) with occupational NIHL were found with mean age (SD) of 49 (9.0) years. All NIHL cases were found in the departments in which the noise level exceeded the PEL, which included quarry (n = 16), maintenance (n = 12), production (n = 10), co-waste processing (n = 3) and quality assurance (n = 1). There was a positive and significant correlation between the NIHL and the excessive noise exposure in the cement plants (r = 0.89, p = 0.04). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

26 pages, 2724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occupational Exposure and Environmental Release: The Case Study of Pouring TiO₂ and Filler Materials for Paint Production

by Ana Sofia Fonseca, Anna-Kaisa Viitanen, Tomi Kanerva, Arto Säämänen, Olivier Aguerre-Chariol, Sebastien Fable, Adrien Dermigny, Nicolas Karoski, Isaline Fraboulet, Ismo Kalevi Koponen, Camilla Delpivo, Alejandro Vilchez Villalba, Socorro Vázquez-Campos, Alexander Christian Østerskov Jensen, Signe Hjortkjær Nielsen, Nicklas Sahlgren, Per Axel Clausen, Bianca Xuan Nguyen Larsen, Vivi Kofoed-Sørensen, Keld Alstrup Jensen and Joonas Koivisto Show full author list Hide full author list

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(2), 418; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020418 - 7 Jan 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5599

Abstract

Pulmonary exposure to micro- and nanoscaled particles has been widely linked to adverse health effects and high concentrations of respirable particles are expected to occur within and around many industrial settings. In this study, a field-measurement campaign was performed at an industrial manufacturer, [...] Read more.

Pulmonary exposure to micro- and nanoscaled particles has been widely linked to adverse health effects and high concentrations of respirable particles are expected to occur within and around many industrial settings. In this study, a field-measurement campaign was performed at an industrial manufacturer, during the production of paints. Spatial and personal measurements were conducted and results were used to estimate the mass flows in the facility and the airborne particle release to the outdoor environment. Airborne particle number concentration (1 × 10³–1.0 × 10⁴ cm⁻³), respirable mass (0.06–0.6 mg m⁻³), and PM₁₀ (0.3–6.5 mg m⁻³) were measured during pouring activities. In overall; emissions from pouring activities were found to be dominated by coarser particles >300 nm. Even though the raw materials were not identified as nanomaterials by the manufacturers, handling of TiO₂ and clays resulted in release of nanometric particles to both workplace air and outdoor environment, which was confirmed by TEM analysis of indoor and stack emission samples. During the measurement period, none of the existing exposure limits in force were exceeded. Particle release to the outdoor environment varied from 6 to 20 g ton⁻¹ at concentrations between 0.6 and 9.7 mg m⁻³ of total suspended dust depending on the powder. The estimated release of TiO₂ to outdoors was 0.9 kg per year. Particle release to the environment is not expected to cause any major impact due to atmospheric dilution Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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22 pages, 2736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Particulate Matter (PM_2.5) from Biomass Combustion Induces an Anti-Oxidative Response and Cancer Drug Resistance in Human Bronchial Epithelial BEAS-2B Cells

by Regina Merk, Katharina Heßelbach, Anastasiya Osipova, Désirée Popadić, Wolfgang Schmidt-Heck, Gwang-Jin Kim, Stefan Günther, Alfonso García Piñeres, Irmgard Merfort and Matjaz Humar

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(21), 8193; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218193 - 6 Nov 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4071

Abstract

Nearly half of the world’s population relies on combustion of solid biofuels to cover fundamental energy demands. Epidemiologic data demonstrate that particularly long-term emissions adversely affect human health. However, pathological molecular mechanisms are insufficiently characterized. Here we demonstrate that long-term exposure to fine [...] Read more.

Nearly half of the world’s population relies on combustion of solid biofuels to cover fundamental energy demands. Epidemiologic data demonstrate that particularly long-term emissions adversely affect human health. However, pathological molecular mechanisms are insufficiently characterized. Here we demonstrate that long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) from biomass combustion had no impact on cellular viability and proliferation but increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells. Exposure to PM_2.5 induced the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and mediated an anti-oxidative response, including enhanced levels of intracellular glutathione (GSH) and nuclear accumulation of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Activation of Nrf2 was promoted by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase JNK1/2, but not p38 or Akt, which were also induced by PM_2.5. Furthermore, cells exposed to PM_2.5 acquired chemoresistance to doxorubicin, which was associated with inhibition of apoptosis and elevated levels of GSH in these cells. Our findings propose that exposure to PM_2.5 induces molecular defense mechanisms, which prevent cellular damage and may thus explain the initially relative rare complications associated with PM_2.5. However, consistent induction of pro-survival pathways may also promote the progression of diseases. Environmental conditions inducing anti-oxidative responses may have the potential to promote a chemoresistant cellular phenotype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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25 pages, 3460 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Particle-Bound PAHs and Elements in a Highly Industrialized City in Southern Italy: PM_2.5 Chemical Characterization and Source Apportionment after the Implementation of Governmental Measures for Air Pollution Mitigation and Control

by Jolanda Palmisani, Alessia Di Gilio, Silvana Angela Franchini, Pietro Cotugno, Daniela Valeria Miniero, Paolo D’Ambruoso and Gianluigi de Gennaro

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(13), 4843; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134843 - 5 Jul 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2511

Abstract

The present study was aimed at determining airborne concentrations of PAHs, Nitro-/Oxy-PAHs and elements in industrial and urban areas of Taranto, a site of environmental risk in Southern Italy, after the issue of strategic measures for air pollution mitigation and control by the [...] Read more.

The present study was aimed at determining airborne concentrations of PAHs, Nitro-/Oxy-PAHs and elements in industrial and urban areas of Taranto, a site of environmental risk in Southern Italy, after the issue of strategic measures for air pollution mitigation and control by the Italian Environment Ministry in 2012. A PM_2.5 sampling campaign was carried out from 9 to 28 December 2014 at eight receptor sites, two placed in the urban settlement and five included in the high spatial resolution fence monitoring network of the biggest European steel plant. The integration of collected data with meteorological parameters and source apportionment analysis by Positive Matrix Factorization and bivariate polar plots allowed to discriminate among emission sources and estimate their contributions. Evidence on the effect of distinct processes (homogenization, sintering) occurring inside the steel plant on airborne concentrations of PAHs and selected elements was provided. The impact of emissions from the steel plant “core” on the surrounding area was observed at receptor sites downwind to it. Moreover, the extent of the effectiveness of mitigation measures, partially applied at the moment of study’s beginning, was demonstrated by mean and peak pollutant concentrations at all receptor sites up to one order of magnitude lower than those documented prior to 2012. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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9 pages, 1270 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Exhaust System Setup on Working Zone Pollution by Dust during Sawing of Particleboards

by Bartosz Pałubicki, Luďka Hlásková and Tomasz Rogoziński

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(10), 3626; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103626 - 21 May 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2550

Abstract

Air pollution by wood dust in furniture production sites is an important hygiene issue. The dust is created by all types of wood and wood-based material machining, and its concentration in the working zone surrounding the machining stand depends on the effectiveness of [...] Read more.

Air pollution by wood dust in furniture production sites is an important hygiene issue. The dust is created by all types of wood and wood-based material machining, and its concentration in the working zone surrounding the machining stand depends on the effectiveness of the dust exhaust system. In present research, three setups of the dust extraction system for a conventional table sawing machine are considered while machining particleboards. The results showed a high impact of the exhaust system connection setup on the dust concentration in the air surrounding the sawing machine work stand. The use of both main and auxiliary sawdust extraction connectors together ensured the highest clearness of the air, with only 0.5 mg/m³ of dust concentration. Closing the upper hood leads to a concentration five times higher, while disconnecting it results in a ten times higher dust content. The finest dust particles (<1 µm), however, are the most numerous in the case of closing the hood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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17 pages, 1467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Asbestos Air Pollution: Description of a Mesothelioma Cluster Due to Residential Exposure from an Asbestos Cement Factory

by Luigi Vimercati, Domenica Cavone, Maria Celeste Delfino, Antonio Caputi, Luigi De Maria, Stefania Sponselli, Vincenzo Corrado, Giovanni Maria Ferri and Gabriella Serio

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(8), 2636; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082636 - 12 Apr 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4198

Abstract

The study describes a cluster of 71 malignant mesothelioma cases among Bari residents without asbestos exposure other than residential exposure. This small cohort, as expected, was composed of a majority of females (56.34%) with a M/F ratio of 0.8, ages ≤ 65 years [...] Read more.

The study describes a cluster of 71 malignant mesothelioma cases among Bari residents without asbestos exposure other than residential exposure. This small cohort, as expected, was composed of a majority of females (56.34%) with a M/F ratio of 0.8, ages ≤ 65 years old (52.11%) and the epithelioid morphological type (78.87%). Sixty-four subjects (90.14%) lived between 10 m and 1000 m from the asbestos cement factory (Fibronit), and the latency length was longer than 55 years for 25 subjects (35.21%). The adjusted risk (adjusted OR) of observing the epithelial form of mesothelioma among subjects living at small distances from Fibronit was high (OR = 1.870 (0.353–9.905)) for people living 550–1000 m from the site and for those living less than 550 m from the site (OR = 1.470 (0.262–8.248)). Additionally, the subjects with a high length of exposure showed a relevant risk of epithelioid mesothelioma both for 21–40 years of exposure (OR = 2.027 (0.521–7.890)) and more than 40 years of exposure (OR = 2.879 (0.651–12.736)). All of the estimates were high but not significant because this transitional study has a typically low power. The adjustment for latency showed the same trend. Using detailed information collected by the regional mesothelioma registry, this study provided evidence of a continuing health impact of the Fibronit asbestos cement factory in Bari on the resident population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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10 pages, 304 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Illness, Self-Rated Health and Access to Medical Care among Waste Pickers in Landfill Sites in Johannesburg, South Africa

by Felix Made, Vusi Ntlebi, Tahira Kootbodien, Kerry Wilson, Nonhlanhla Tlotleng, Angela Mathee, Mpume Ndaba, Spo Kgalamono and Nisha Naicker

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(7), 2252; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072252 - 27 Mar 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3852

Abstract

Waste pickers are exposed to various environmental health hazards, and self-rated health (SRH) could influence their medical care access. This study investigated the association between illness, clinic visits and SRH, and assessed if SRH can increase clinic visits. A cross-sectional study was conducted. [...] Read more.

Waste pickers are exposed to various environmental health hazards, and self-rated health (SRH) could influence their medical care access. This study investigated the association between illness, clinic visits and SRH, and assessed if SRH can increase clinic visits. A cross-sectional study was conducted. SRH was defined as “very good”, “good”, “fair”, and “poor”. The illnesses were mental health, infectious, and chronic diseases. Medical care access included clinic visits in the previous 12 months. An ordinal logistic regression model was fitted to assess the association. There were 361 participants, 265 (73.41%) were males. Median age was 31 years, (interquartile range (IQR): 27–39). SRH: poor (29.89%), fair (15.92%), good (43.30%) very good (10.89%). Ever smoked (adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 1.72; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.11–2.66), mental health (AOR: 1.87; 95% CI: 1.22–2.84), chronic (AOR: 2.34; 95% CI:1.47–3.68) and infectious (AOR: 2.07; 95% CI: 1.77–3.63) diseases were significantly associated with increased odds of reporting poor health. Clinic visit was not associated with SRH. From 99 (31%) individuals who rated their health as poor and ill, 40% visited a clinic (p = 0.0606). Acute and chronic illnesses were associated with poor SRH but this did not increase clinic visits. Provision of mobile clinic services at the landfill sites could increase access to medical care. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

33 pages, 1143 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Monitoring of PAHs Exposure, Biomarkers and Vital Status in Coke Oven Workers

by Luigi Vimercati, Lucia Bisceglia, Domenica Cavone, Antonio Caputi, Luigi De Maria, Maria Celeste Delfino, Vincenzo Corrado and Giovanni Maria Ferri

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(7), 2199; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072199 - 25 Mar 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3717

Abstract

A follow-up study of a cohort of workers from a coke plant compared with a control group from the same industrial area was conducted in 2019. The recruitment and environmental and biomarker measurements were performed during 1993/1994. The environmental concentrations of polycyclic aromatic [...] Read more.

A follow-up study of a cohort of workers from a coke plant compared with a control group from the same industrial area was conducted in 2019. The recruitment and environmental and biomarker measurements were performed during 1993/1994. The environmental concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), B(a)P, pyrene and nitro-PAH were measured. Personal data were collected via an individual semi-structured questionnaire by a trained physician. All biomarkers were measured after a specific blood drawing for every test. Significant risks (ORs) were observed for nitro-PAH (≥0.12 µg/m³) [OR = 7.96 (1.01–62.82)], urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHpy) (≥0.99 µmoles/moles of creatinine) [OR = 11.71 (1.47–92.90)], PAH DNA adducts (P³²) (≥2.69 adducts/10⁸ nucleotides) [OR = 5.46 (1.17–25.58)], total nitro-PAH hemoglobin adducts (≥161.68 fg/µg of Hb) [OR = 5.92 (1.26–27.86)], sister chromatid exchange (SCE) with TCR (≥377.84 SCE/cell chromosomes) [OR = 13.06 (3.95–93.10)], sister chromatid exchange with T (≥394.72 total SCE) [OR = 13.06 (3.95–93.10)], and sister chromatid exchange with X (≥8.19 mean SCE) [OR = 13.06 (3.95–93.10)]. Significant risk of death for all causes and chromosomal aberrations (48 h) (OR = 7.19 [1.19–43.44]) or micronuclei in culture at 48 h (OR = 3.86 [1.04–14.38]) were also found. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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9 pages, 833 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Propane-1,3-sultone in Workplace Air for Occupational Exposure Assessment

by Anna Jeżewska

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1414; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041414 - 21 Feb 2020

Viewed by 3306

Abstract

Propane-1,3-sultone (PS) is an alkylating substance used in the production of polymers, fungicides, insecticides, dyes, and detergents. It is absorbed into the human body by inhalation, digestion, and through the skin; it is also a possible carcinogen. Occupational exposure to this substance may [...] Read more.

Propane-1,3-sultone (PS) is an alkylating substance used in the production of polymers, fungicides, insecticides, dyes, and detergents. It is absorbed into the human body by inhalation, digestion, and through the skin; it is also a possible carcinogen. Occupational exposure to this substance may occur on industrial or laboratory contact. In Poland, the maximum allowable concentration (MAC) for PS in workplace air is 7 µg/m³. The paper presents a method for determination of PS in workplace air using a gas chromatograph coupled with a mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Air containing PS is passed through a glass tube containing a glass fiber filter and two layers of silica gel. The substance is washed with acetonitrile and the solution obtained analysed using GC-MS. The measuring range for an air sample of 360 L is 0.7 ÷ 14 µg/m³. The limit of detection (LOD) is 13 ng/m³, limit of quantification (LOQ) is 40 ng/m³. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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20 pages, 2646 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Environmental Particulate Matter Levels during 2017 Large Forest Fires and Megafires in the Center Region of Portugal: A Public Health Concern?

by Marta Oliveira, Cristina Delerue-Matos, Maria Carmo Pereira and Simone Morais

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(3), 1032; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031032 - 6 Feb 2020

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 4664

Abstract

This work characterizes the dimension and the exceptionality of 2017 large- and mega-fires that occurred in the center region of Portugal through the assessment of their impact on the ambient levels of particulate matter (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5), retrieved from local [...] Read more.

This work characterizes the dimension and the exceptionality of 2017 large- and mega-fires that occurred in the center region of Portugal through the assessment of their impact on the ambient levels of particulate matter (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5), retrieved from local monitoring stations, and the associated public health risks. PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations were increased during the occurrence of large fires and megafires, with daily concentrations exceeding the European/national guidelines in 7–14 and 1–12 days of 2017 (up to 704 µg/m³ for PM₁₀ and 46 µg/m³ for PM_2.5), respectively. PM₁₀ concentrations were correlated with total burned area (0.500 < r < 0.949; p > 0.05) and with monthly total burned area/distance² (0.500 < r < 0.667; p > 0.05). The forest fires of 2017 took the life of 112 citizens. A total of 474 cases of hospital admissions due to cardiovascular diseases and 3524 cases of asthma incidence symptoms per 100,000 individuals at risk were assessed due to exposure to 2017 forest fires. Real-time and in situ PM methodologies should be combined with protection action plans to reduce public health risks. Portuguese rural stations should monitor other health-relevant pollutants (e.g., carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds) released from wildfires to allow performing more robust and comprehensive measurements that will allow a better assessment of the potential health risks for the exposed populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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13 pages, 757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exposure to Amosite-Containing Ceiling Boards in a Public School in Switzerland: A Case Study

by David Vernez, Olivier Duperrex, Horacio Herrera, Vincent Perret, Isabelle Rossi, Frederic Regamey and Michel Guillemin

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(24), 5069; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245069 - 12 Dec 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3769

Abstract

The measurement of an airborne concentration in Amosite fibers above 5035 F/m³ in a school prompted a retrospective quantitative health risk assessment. Dose estimates were built using air measurements, laboratory experiments, previous exposure data, and interviews. A dose response model was adapted [...] Read more.

The measurement of an airborne concentration in Amosite fibers above 5035 F/m³ in a school prompted a retrospective quantitative health risk assessment. Dose estimates were built using air measurements, laboratory experiments, previous exposure data, and interviews. A dose response model was adapted for amosite-only exposure and adjusted for the life expectancy and lung cancer incidence in the Swiss population. The average yearly concentrations found were 52–320 F/m³. The high concentration previously observed was not representative of the average exposure in the building. Overall, the risk estimates for the different populations of the school were low and in the range of 2 × 10⁻⁶ to 3 × 10⁻⁵ for mesothelioma and 4 × 10⁻⁷ to 8 × 10⁻⁶ for lung cancer. The results evidenced however that children have to be considered at higher risk when exposed to asbestos, and that the current reference method and target values are of limited use for amphibole-only exposures. This study confirmed that quantitative health risk assessments and participatory approaches are powerful tools to support public decisions and build constructive communication between exposed people, experts, and policy-makers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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10 pages, 611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Triglycidyl Isocyanurate in Workplace Air

by Anna Jeżewska and Joanna Kowalska

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(22), 4455; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224455 - 13 Nov 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2971

Abstract

Triglycidyl isocyanurate (TGIC) is a white solid in powder or granular form. TGIC does not occur naturally in the environment. It is intentionally manufactured and used as a crosslinking agent or hardener to produce polyester powder coatings. TGIC may cause genetic defects. This [...] Read more.

Triglycidyl isocyanurate (TGIC) is a white solid in powder or granular form. TGIC does not occur naturally in the environment. It is intentionally manufactured and used as a crosslinking agent or hardener to produce polyester powder coatings. TGIC may cause genetic defects. This article presents the method of TGIC determination in workplace air using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a diode-array detector (DAD). The method is based on the collection of TGIC present in the air on a polypropylene filter, extraction with acetonitrile, and chromatographic analysis of the solution obtained in this way. The determination was carried out in the reverse-phase system (mobile phase: acetonitrile: water) using an Ultra C18 column. The measurement range is 2 to 40 µg/m³ for a 720 liters air sample. Limit of detection (LOD) is 23 ng/m³ and limit of quantification (LOQ): 70 ng/m³. The method can be used for assessing occupational exposure to TGIC and associated risk to workers’ health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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12 pages, 1203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Occupational Safety and Hygiene Perception among Afro-Caribbean Hair Salon Operators in Manchester, United Kingdom

by Haruna Musa Moda and Debrah King

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(18), 3284; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16183284 - 6 Sep 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4908

Abstract

Because of exposure to a number of potential health hazards within the work environment, hairstylists experience occupational diseases that include occupational asthma, skin conditions and musculoskeletal diseases. The paucity of studies assessing occupational safety and hygiene management among Afro-Caribbean hair salon operators in [...] Read more.

Because of exposure to a number of potential health hazards within the work environment, hairstylists experience occupational diseases that include occupational asthma, skin conditions and musculoskeletal diseases. The paucity of studies assessing occupational safety and hygiene management among Afro-Caribbean hair salon operators in the UK promoted the study. Qualtrics^TM was used to assess the participants’ perception of exposure to hair products and their personal safety and hygiene knowledge, attitudes, awareness, and risk perceptions at work. In five salons, indoor air quality was monitored over one working week for selected environmental pollutants: temperature, humidity, CO, CO₂ and Total Volatile Organic Compounds (TVOCs) using a GrayWolf Direct Sense Indoor Air Quality-IAQ (IQ-610). The use of unflued gas heating to raise the indoor temperature was common among the salons’ operators which explains the high carbon monoxide readings recorded. Itchy eyes and nose (44.4%) shoulder, neck and back pain (39.2%) were frequently reported. Age-stratified analysis of reported occupational ailments showed participants within an age bracket of 31–35 reported allergies (24%) and itchy eyes and nose (19.1%) as the most common of occupational ailments. Respiratory, skin and musculoskeletal symptoms ranked as major occupational ill-health experiences among the study population. The study outcome demonstrated that the type of activity and the hair products used play an important role in the level of pollutants in the working environment. The substitution of the more harmful hair products with safer alternatives is needed, as is the encouragement of health surveillance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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Review

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20 pages, 1082 KiB

Open AccessReview

Occupational Exposure of Hairdressers to Airborne Hazardous Chemicals: A Scoping Review

by Sanja Kezic, Roberto Nunez, Željka Babić, Sarah Hallmann, Martin S. Havmose, Jeanne D. Johansen, Swen M. John, Marija Macan, Cara Symanzik, Wolfgang Uter, Patricia Weinert, Rajka Turk, Jelena Macan and Henk F. van der Molen

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(7), 4176; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074176 - 31 Mar 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5615

Abstract

Introduction: Exposure to hazardous chemicals released during hairdressing activities from hair care products puts hairdressers at risk of adverse health effects. Safety assessments of hair products are mainly focused on consumers, but exposure for professional hairdressers might be substantially higher. Objective: To identify [...] Read more.

Introduction: Exposure to hazardous chemicals released during hairdressing activities from hair care products puts hairdressers at risk of adverse health effects. Safety assessments of hair products are mainly focused on consumers, but exposure for professional hairdressers might be substantially higher. Objective: To identify and assess available research data on inhalation exposures of professional hairdressers. Methods: A systematic search of studies between 1 January 2000 and 30 April 2021 was performed in Medline, Embase, Web of Science and in Cochrane registry, toxicological dossiers of the Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) of the European Commission as well as the German MAK Commission. Studies reporting quantitative data on airborne concentrations of chemicals in the hairdresser’s workplace were considered. The outcome was an airborne concentration of chemicals in the working environment, which was compared, when possible, with current occupational exposure limits (OEL) or guidance levels. Results: In total, 23 studies performed in 14 countries were included. The average number of hairdressing salons per study was 22 (range 1–62). Chemicals most frequently measured were formaldehyde (n = 8), ammonia (n = 5), total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) (n = 5), and toluene (n = 4). More than fifty other chemicals were measured in one to three studies, including various aromatic and aliphatic organic solvents, hydrogen peroxide, persulfate, and particulate matter. Most studies reported environmental air concentrations, while personal exposure was measured only in seven studies. The measured air concentrations of formaldehyde, ammonia, and TVOC exceeded OEL or guidance values in some studies. There was large variability in measuring conditions and reported air concentrations differed strongly within and between studies. Conclusion: Hairdressers are exposed to a wide spectrum of hazardous chemicals, often simultaneously. Airborne concentrations of pollutants depend on salon characteristics such as ventilation and the number of customers but also on used products that are often country- or client-specific. For exposure to formaldehyde, ammonia, and TVOC exceeding OELs or guidance values for indoor air was observed. Therefore, occupational exposure should be taken into account by safety regulations for hair care products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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17 pages, 380 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Scientific Basis for Occupational Exposure Limits for Hydrogen Sulphide—A Critical Commentary

by Mark Elwood

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(6), 2866; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062866 - 11 Mar 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3338

Abstract

Objectives: Occupational exposure limits for hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) vary considerably; three expert group reports, published from 2006 to 2010, each recommend different limits. Some jurisdictions are considering substantial reductions. Methods: This review assesses the scientific evidence used in these recommendations and [...] Read more.

Objectives: Occupational exposure limits for hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) vary considerably; three expert group reports, published from 2006 to 2010, each recommend different limits. Some jurisdictions are considering substantial reductions. Methods: This review assesses the scientific evidence used in these recommendations and presents a new systematic review of human studies from 2006–20, identifying 33 studies. Results: The three major reports all give most weight to two sets of studies: of physiological effects in human volunteers, and of effects in the nasal passages of rats and mice. The human studies were done in one laboratory over 20 years ago and give inconsistent results. The breathing style and nasal anatomy of rats and mice would make them more sensitive than humans to inhaled agents. Each expert group applied different uncertainly factors. From these reports and the further literature review, no clear evidence of detrimental health effects from chronic occupational exposures specific to H₂S was found. Detailed studies of individuals in communities with natural sources in New Zealand have shown no detrimental effects. Studies in Iceland and Italy show some associations; these and various other small studies need verification. Conclusions: The scientific justification for lowering occupational exposure limits is very limited. There is no clear evidence, based on currently available studies, that lower limits will protect the health of workers further than will the current exposure limits used in most countries. Further review and assessment of relevant evidence is justified before exposure limits are set. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

11 pages, 1225 KiB

Open AccessReview

Genomics of Particulate Matter Exposure Associated Cardiopulmonary Disease: A Narrative Review

by Julia Citron, Emma Willcocks, George Crowley, Sophia Kwon and Anna Nolan

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(22), 4335; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224335 - 7 Nov 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3033

Abstract

Particulate matter (PM) exposure is associated with the development of cardiopulmonary disease. Our group has studied the adverse health effects of World Trade Center particulate matter (WTC-PM) exposure on firefighters. To fully understand the complex interplay between exposure, organism, and resultant disease phenotype, [...] Read more.

Particulate matter (PM) exposure is associated with the development of cardiopulmonary disease. Our group has studied the adverse health effects of World Trade Center particulate matter (WTC-PM) exposure on firefighters. To fully understand the complex interplay between exposure, organism, and resultant disease phenotype, it is vital to analyze the underlying role of genomics in mediating this relationship. A PubMed search was performed focused on environmental exposure, genomics, and cardiopulmonary disease. We included original research published within 10 years, on epigenetic modifications and specific genetic or allelic variants. The initial search resulted in 95 studies. We excluded manuscripts that focused on work-related chemicals, heavy metals and tobacco smoke as primary sources of exposure, as well as reviews, prenatal research, and secondary research studies. Seven full-text articles met pre-determined inclusion criteria, and were reviewed. The effects of air pollution were evaluated in terms of methylation (n = 3), oxidative stress (n = 2), and genetic variants (n = 2). There is evidence to suggest that genomics plays a meditating role in the formation of adverse cardiopulmonary symptoms and diseases that surface after exposure events. Genomic modifications and variations affect the association between environmental exposure and cardiopulmonary disease, but additional research is needed to further define this relationship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution: Occupational Exposure and Public Health)

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