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Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Sport and Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 April 2022) | Viewed by 37824

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Prof. Dr. Michael Keiner

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Guest Editor

Department of Exercise and Training Science, German University of Health and Sport, 85737 Ismaning, Germany
Interests: resistance training in competitive athletes and youth

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In today's world, achieving success in sport has become a difficult goal for athletes and coaches. Both face the challenges of an ever-increasing level of international competition. Optimal strength and conditioning training is, therefore, an indispensable part of the long-term training process for athletes in individual and team sports to improve performance. In order to improve performance, it is also important to keep athletes healthy. Various interventions (power, maximum strength, hypertrophy-orientated or strength-endurance training), exercises (e.g., free-weight, functional, body-weight or plyometric), and/or periodization strategies (e.g., block, linear or undulating models) to induce positive physical adaptations, which, in turn, can create optimal conditions for improving sport-specific performance and/or health. Improving knowledge and understanding of training responses in different types and proposals of strength and power training will facilitate the training planning of elite athletes.

For this Special Issue, high-quality observational, experimental, review and meta-analysis studies that provide evidence about the benefits of strength training for improving sport-specific performance and/or health in elite sports are welcomed.

Prof. Dr. Michael Keiner
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Health
Bone health
Elite sports
Fitness testing
Strength
Power
Exercise physiology
Periodization
Long-term training
Quality of life.

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 1908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Strength vs. Plyometric Training upon Change of Direction Performance in Young Female Handball Players

by Hallvard Nygaard Falch, Markus Estifanos Haugen, Eirik Lindset Kristiansen and Roland van den Tillaar

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(11), 6946; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116946 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3877

Abstract

The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of six weeks of strength vs. plyometric training upon change of direction (COD) performance. A total of 21 young female handball players were randomly assigned to either a strength group: (n = 11, age: 17.5 ± 2.3 years, height: 1.69 ± 0.05 m, weight: 65.8 ± 5.9 kg) training bilateral, unilateral and later squats; or a plyometric training group (n = 10, age: 17.1 ± 2.4 years, height: 1.73 ± 0.07 m, weight: 67.1 ± 9.3 kg) training drop jumps, unilateral countermovement jumps and skate-jumps. Groups were assigned after being pair-matched based upon baseline COD performance. The training modalities were matched in training impulse. A force- (180°) and velocity-oriented (45°) COD of 20 m was used to measure changes in COD performance (10 m + COD + 10 m). Total time (s) to complete the COD test was defined as the performance variable. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05. The two-way ANOVA showed no group effect upon COD performance. A significant effect was only observed for the strength training group in the last 10 m and total 20 m of the force-oriented COD (F ≥ 5.51; p ≤ 0.04; η² ≥ 0.36). Both groups improved performance in other strength- and power-related tests. It was concluded that only the strength training program was effective in developing force-oriented COD performance in the studied population, while the plyometric training program was not sufficient. Both training modalities are useful for improving performance in different strength and power tests in young female handball players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health)

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10 pages, 1722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Maximum Squatting Strength on Jump and Sprint Performance: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of 492 Youth Soccer Players

by Michael Keiner, Torsten Brauner, Björn Kadlubowski, Andre Sander and Klaus Wirth

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(10), 5835; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105835 - 11 May 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3448

Abstract

This study aims to analyze the influence of relative strength performance, determined by parallel back squats (REL SQ), on 30 m sprinting (LS) and on jumping performance (squat [SJ], countermovement [CMJ]) in a large sample (n = 492) of elite youth soccer players. The soccer players were divided into subgroups based on their strength performance: strength level 1 (0.0–0.5 REL SQ), strength level 2 (>0.5–1.0 REL SQ), strength level 3 (>1.0 to 1.5 REL SQ), strength level 4 (>1.5 to 2.0 REL SQ), and strength level 5 (>2.0 REL SQ). The results of this study show that REL SQ explains 45–53% (r = |0.67–0.73|) of the variance of SJ, CMJ, and LS for the total sample. Strength levels 2–4 showed similar coefficients of correlation in jumping performance (r = |0.42–0.55|) and strength levels 2 and 3 in sprint performance (r = |0.41|). The respective extreme strength levels showed lower coefficients of correlation with the sprinting and jumping performance variables (r = |0.11–0.29|). No coefficients could be calculated for strength level 5 because no athlete achieved an appropriate strength level (>2.0 REL SQ). The data from this study show a clear influence of REL SQ on sprint and jump performance, even in a large sample. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health)

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14 pages, 2147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Agonist/Antagonist Tensional Balance of the Knee between Two Isokinetic Positions: A Pilot Study on a Sample of High-Level Competitive Soccer Players

by Jorge García-Pastor, Ildefonso Alvear-Ordenes, Diego Arias-Giráldez, María Mercedes Reguera-García and Beatriz Alonso-Cortés

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5397; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095397 - 28 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2016

Abstract

Isokinetic knee dynamometry evolves towards more precise techniques, such as the calculation of the functional ratio. This study evaluated the influence of an intermediate hip position called the unified reclined position (URP) compared to the classic sitting position, (CSP) on hamstring eccentric PT values (H_exc30) and conventional (H_con60/Q_con60) and functional (H_exc30/Q_con60) ratios. Twenty Spanish high-level competitive soccer players (20.4 ± 4.44 years) were evaluated in CSP and in URP. The hip angle in URP (44°) was determined with a passive extensibility test (quadriceps and hamstrings), looking for an agonist/antagonist tension balance. The following were performed: three repetitions (60°/s) and five repetitions (240°/s) in concentric quadriceps and hamstrings mode; and three repetitions (30°/s) in concentric and eccentric for the hamstrings. At 30°/s, the CSP presents higher values of maximal eccentric hamstring strength than URP, (Dom + N-Dom leg (Nm): CSP = 148.3 ± 19.5 vs. URP 143.5 ± 23.2); p = 0.086 (n.s.). The conventional relationship did not show data justifying the preference for URP over CSP (p = 0.86 (n.s.)). However, although the functional index did not show significant values (p = 0.97 (n.s.), it did show a greater number of subjects with imbalances measured in URP (five in URP vs. two in CSP). An assessment angle of the hip closer to sports reality seems to favor the use of the URP as a complementary method to the CSP. These data stimulate new studies using URP together with the classic protocol. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health)

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11 pages, 1065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of Intermittent Foot Cooling on 1 RM Leg Press Strength in Resistance-Trained Men: A Pilot Study

by Chih-Min Wu, Mei-Hsien Lee, Wen-Yi Wang and Zong-Yan Cai

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9594; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189594 - 12 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2611

Abstract

Inter-set peripheral cooling can improve high-intensity resistance exercise performance. However, whether foot cooling (FC) would increase 1 repetition maximum (RM) lower-limb strength is unclear. This study investigated the effect of intermittent FC on 1 RM leg press strength. Ten recreational male lifters performed three attempts of 1 RM leg press with FC or non-cooling (NC) in a repeated-measures crossover design separated by 5 days. FC was applied by foot immersion in 10 °C water for 2.5 min before each attempt. During the 1 RM test, various physiological measures were recorded. The results showed that FC elicited higher 1 RM leg press strength (Δ [95% CI]; Cohen’s d effect size [ES]; 13.6 [7.6–19.5] kg; ES = 1.631) and electromyography values in vastus lateralis (57.7 [8.1–107.4] μV; ES = 0.831) and gastrocnemius (15.1 [−3.1–33.2] μV; ES = 0.593) than in NC. Higher arousal levels (felt arousal scale) were found in FC (0.6 [0.1–1.2]; ES = 0.457) than in NC. In conclusion, the preliminary findings, although limited, suggest intermittent FC has a potential ergogenic role for recreational athletes to enhance maximal lower-limb strength and may partly benefit strength-based competition events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health)

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12 pages, 1885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Visuospatial Expertise between Skeet Shooting Athletes and Non-Athletes

by Henrique Nascimento, Cristina Alvarez-Peregrina, Clara Martinez-Perez and Miguel Ángel Sánchez-Tena

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 8147; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158147 - 31 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3272

Abstract

Background: Sports vision is a specialisation of optometry whose objective is to improve and preserve visual function to increase sports performance. The main objective of the present study was to compare the visual expertise of non-athletes to skeet shooting athletes. Methods: Participants underwent an optometric assessment in which all those with severe deviations from normal vision, after compensating for visual abnormalities, were eliminated. After that, the following six visuospatial components were measured: hand–eye coordination, peripheral awareness, fixation disparity, saccadic eye movements, speed of recognition and visual memory. To measure the aforementioned components, the following tests were used: directional arrows, similar and different characters, the dichromatic disparity test, character marking, a tachistoscopic test and tic-tac-toe using COI-vision software. Results: Skeet shooting athletes performed significatively better (p ≤ 0.05) in two out of the six tests: hand–eye coordination and visual memory. Conclusions: Although this study does not support the theory that athletes—in this case, skeet shooting athletes—perform significantly better in most components of the visuospatial tests, visual memory and hand–eye coordination are exceptions. To be more accurate in distinguishing between athletes and non-athletes, specific testing methods that can be used by a wide variety of disciplines should be developed. Training the weakest aspects of athletes can improve their sports performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health)

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9 pages, 351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Reactive Strength and Leg Stiffness at Submaximal Velocity: Effects of Age on Distance Runners

by Diego Jaén-Carrillo, Antonio Cartón-Llorente, Demetrio Lozano-Jarque, Alberto Rubio-Peirotén, Luis E. Roche-Seruendo and Felipe García-Pinillos

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(13), 6866; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136866 - 26 Jun 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2414

Abstract

Background: Musculotendinous reactive strength is a key factor for the utilization of elastic energy in sporting activities such as running. AIM: To evaluate the relationship between musculotendinous reactive strength and lower-limb stiffness during running as well as to identify age-related differences in both variables. Methods: Fifty-nine amateur endurance runners performed three 20-cm drop jumps and a constant 3-min easy run on a motorized treadmill. Reactive strength index and dynamic lower-limb stiffness were calculated with a photoelectric cell system by jumping and running, respectively. Additionally, sit to stand difference in plantar arch height was assessed as a static lower-limb stiffness measure. The cluster analysis allows the comparison between younger and older runners. Results: No significant correlations were found between jumping reactive strength and running lower-limb stiffness. The younger group performed better at drop jumps (p = 0.023, ES = 0.82), whereas higher-but-no-significant results were found for reactive strength index and stiffness-related metrics. Conclusions: Musculotendinous vertical reactiveness may not be transferred to combined vertical and horizontal movements such as running. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health)

10 pages, 544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isokinetic and Isometric Assessment of the Knee Joint Extensors and Flexors of Professional Volleyball Players

by Piotr Wilkosz, Jaroslaw Kabacinski, Krzysztof Mackala, Michal Murawa, John Ostarello, Agata Rzepnicka, Lukasz Szczesny, Anna Fryzowicz, Jacek Maczynski and Lechoslaw B. Dworak

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(13), 6780; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136780 - 24 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3177

Abstract

Purpose: The main objective of this study was to evaluate the level of muscle strength by using isokinetic and isometric measurements—more specifically, the force ratio between the knee flexors and extensors (values of the torques). Methods: An experimental group of elite volleyball players (n = 14) were compared to a control group (n = 14) of healthy non-athletes of comparable ages. Torque measurements were obtained under three concentric conditions (angular velocities of 60 °/s, 180 °/s, and 300 °/s) and one static condition by utilizing the Biodex System 3. Results: In all trials, the volleyball players achieved significantly higher peak torque (PT) values for both the extensors and flexors (p < 0.05) than those of the control group. However, the strength ratio of the flexors and extensors (H/Q) in the experimental group was only 83% of the standard reported in the literature. The most developed and dominating muscles in the knee joints of the volleyball players were the extensors, which accounted for the low strength ratio and dynamic instability of this joint. Conclusion: Based on a proper assessment of the strength ratio of the knee flexors and extensors, properly selected and implemented resistance training can improve the maximum strength and power production and reduce the incidence of injuries in volleyball. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health)

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16 pages, 789 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromuscular Adaptations after an Altitude Training Camp in Elite Judo Athletes

by Katja Tomazin, Filipa Almeida, Igor Stirn, Paulino Padial, Juan Bonitch-Góngora, Antonio J. Morales-Artacho, Vojko Strojnik and Belen Feriche

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(13), 6777; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136777 - 24 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3361

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate neuromuscular adaptations in elite judo athletes after three weeks of power-oriented strength training at terrestrial altitude (2320 m). Nineteen men were assigned to altitude training (AL) (22.1 ± 2.3 years) and sea level training (SL) (22.6 ± 4.1 years). Neuromuscular assessment consisted of: (1) maximal isometric knee extensor (KE) torque, (2) KE rate of torque development (RTD), (3) quadriceps activity and voluntary activation, (4) soleus H-reflex, (5) quadriceps single (T_TW) and double twitch torque (T_DB100) and contraction time (CT_TW). There were no significant differences between groups at baseline for any of the observed parameters. Significant differences were found between groups in terms of change in RTD (p = 0.04). Cohen’s d showed a positive significant effect (0.43) in the SL group and a negative significant effect (−0.58) in the AL group. The difference between groups in changes in CT_TW as a function of altitude was on the edge of significance (p = 0.077). CT_TW increased by 8.1 ± 9.0% in the AL group (p = 0.036) and remained statistically unchanged in the SL group. Only the AL group showed a relationship between changes in T_TW and T_DB100 and changes in RTD at posttest (p = 0.022 and p = 0.016, respectively). Altitude induced differences in muscular adaptations likely due to greater peripheral fatigue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health)

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Review

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32 pages, 1993 KiB

Open AccessReview

Strength Training in Swimming

by Klaus Wirth, Michael Keiner, Stefan Fuhrmann, Alfred Nimmerichter and G. Gregory Haff

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5369; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095369 - 28 Apr 2022

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 12281

Abstract

This narrative review deals with the topic of strength training in swimming, which has been a controversial issue for decades. It is not only about the importance for the performance at start, turn and swim speed, but also about the question of how to design a strength training program. Different approaches are discussed in the literature, with two aspects in the foreground. On the one hand is the discussion about the optimal intensity in strength training and, on the other hand, is the question of how specific strength training should be designed. In addition to a summary of the current state of research regarding the importance of strength training for swimming, the article shows which physiological adaptations should be achieved in order to be able to increase performance in the long term. Furthermore, an attempt is made to explain why some training contents seem to be rather unsuitable when it comes to increasing strength as a basis for higher performance in the start, turn and clean swimming. Practical training consequences are then derived from this. Regardless of the athlete’s performance development, preventive aspects should also be considered in the discussion. The article provides a critical overview of the abovementioned key issues. The most important points when designing a strength training program for swimming are a sufficiently high-load intensity to increase maximum strength, which in turn is the basis for power, year-round strength training, parallel to swim training and working on the transfer of acquired strength skills in swim training, and not through supposedly specific strength training exercises on land or in the water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Elite Athletes to Improve Performance and Health)

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