International Journal of Molecular Sciences

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887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Nanocellulose Reinforced Chitosan Films, Cross-Linked by Adipic Acid

by Pouria Falamarzpour, Tayebeh Behzad and Akram Zamani

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(2), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18020396 - 13 Feb 2017

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 7205

Abstract

Adipic acid, an abundant and nontoxic compound, was used to dissolve and cross-link chitosan. After the preparation of chitosan films through casting technique, the in situ amidation reaction was performed at 80–100 °C as verified by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR). The reaction was [...] Read more.

Adipic acid, an abundant and nontoxic compound, was used to dissolve and cross-link chitosan. After the preparation of chitosan films through casting technique, the in situ amidation reaction was performed at 80–100 °C as verified by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR). The reaction was accompanied by the release of water which was employed to investigate the reaction kinetics. Accordingly, the reaction rate followed the first-order model and Arrhenius equation, and the activation energy was calculated to be 18 kJ/mol. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of the chitosan films were comprehensively studied. First, optimal curing conditions (84 °C, 93 min) were introduced through a central composite design. In order to evaluate the effects of adipic acid, the mechanical properties of physically cross-linked (uncured), chemically cross-linked (cured), and uncross-linked (prepared by acetic acid) films were compared. The use of adipic acid improved the tensile strength of uncured and chemically cross-linked films more than 60% and 113%, respectively. Finally, the effect of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) on the mechanical performance of cured films, in the presence of glycerol as a plasticizer, was investigated. The plasticized chitosan films reinforced by 5 wt % CNFs showed superior properties as a promising material for the development of chitosan-based biomaterials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitins 2016)

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4212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oral Administration of Surface-Deacetylated Chitin Nanofibers and Chitosan Inhibit 5-Fluorouracil-Induced Intestinal Mucositis in Mice

by Ryo Koizumi, Kazuo Azuma, Hironori Izawa, Minoru Morimoto, Kosuke Ochi, Takeshi Tsuka, Tomohiro Imagawa, Tomohiro Osaki, Norihiko Ito, Yoshiharu Okamoto, Hiroyuki Saimoto and Shinsuke Ifuku

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(2), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18020279 - 27 Jan 2017

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5123

Abstract

This study investigated the prophylactic effects of orally administered surface-deacetylated chitin nanofibers (SDACNFs) and chitosan against 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-induced intestinal mucositis, which is a common side effect of 5-FU chemotherapy. SDACNFs and chitosan abolished histological abnormalities associated with intestinal mucositis and suppressed hypoproliferation and [...] Read more.

This study investigated the prophylactic effects of orally administered surface-deacetylated chitin nanofibers (SDACNFs) and chitosan against 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-induced intestinal mucositis, which is a common side effect of 5-FU chemotherapy. SDACNFs and chitosan abolished histological abnormalities associated with intestinal mucositis and suppressed hypoproliferation and apoptosis of intestinal crypt cells. These results indicate that SDACNF and chitosan are useful agents for preventing mucositis induced by anti-cancer drugs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitins 2016)

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2561 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vivo Assessment of Clobetasol Propionate-Loaded Lecithin-Chitosan Nanoparticles for Skin Delivery

by Taner Şenyiğit, Fabio Sonvico, Alessandra Rossi, Işıl Tekmen, Patrizia Santi, Paolo Colombo, Sara Nicoli and Özgen Özer

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18010032 - 26 Dec 2016

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7202

Abstract

The aim of this work was to assess in vivo the anti-inflammatory efficacy and tolerability of clobetasol propionate (CP) loaded lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles incorporated into chitosan gel for topical application (CP 0.005%). As a comparison, a commercial cream (CP 0.05% w/w), [...] Read more.

The aim of this work was to assess in vivo the anti-inflammatory efficacy and tolerability of clobetasol propionate (CP) loaded lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles incorporated into chitosan gel for topical application (CP 0.005%). As a comparison, a commercial cream (CP 0.05% w/w), and a sodium deoxycholate gel (CP 0.05% w/w) were also evaluated. Lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles were prepared by self-assembling of the components obtained by direct injection of soybean lecithin alcoholic solution containing CP into chitosan aqueous solution. Nanoparticles obtained had a particle size around 250 nm, narrow distribution (polydispersity index below 0.2) and positive surface charge, provided by a superficial layer of the cationic polymer. The nanoparticle suspension was then loaded into a chitosan gel, to obtain a final CP concentration of 0.005%. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using carrageenan-induced hind paw edema test on Wistar rats, the effect of formulations on the barrier property of the stratum corneum were determined using transepidermal water loss measurements (TEWL) and histological analysis was performed to evaluate the possible presence of morphological changes. The results obtained indicate that nanoparticle-in-gel formulation produced significantly higher edema inhibition compared to other formulations tested, although it contained ten times less CP. TEWL measurements also revealed that all formulations have no significant disturbance on the barrier function of skin. Furthermore, histological analysis of rat abdominal skin did not show morphological tissue changes nor cell infiltration signs after application of the formulations. Taken together, the present data show that the use of lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles in chitosan gel as a drug carrier significantly improves the risk-benefit ratio as compared with sodium-deoxycholate gel and commercial cream formulations of CP. Full article

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3876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Pure and Stable Chitosan Nanofibers by Electrospinning in the Presence of Poly(ethylene oxide)

by Solomon Mengistu Lemma, Frédéric Bossard and Marguerite Rinaudo

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(11), 1790; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17111790 - 26 Oct 2016

Cited by 111 | Viewed by 9127

Abstract

Electrospinning was employed to obtain chitosan nanofibers from blends of chitosans (CS) and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO). Blends of chitosan (M_W (weight-average molecular weight) = 102 kg/mol) and PEO (M (molecular weight) = 1000 kg/mol) were selected to optimize the electrospinning process [...] Read more.

Electrospinning was employed to obtain chitosan nanofibers from blends of chitosans (CS) and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO). Blends of chitosan (M_W (weight-average molecular weight) = 102 kg/mol) and PEO (M (molecular weight) = 1000 kg/mol) were selected to optimize the electrospinning process parameters. The PEO powder was solubilized into chitosan solution at different weight ratios in 0.5 M acetic acid. The physicochemical changes of the nanofibers were determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), swelling capacity, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. For stabilization, the produced nanofibers were neutralized with K₂CO₃ in water or 70% ethanol/30% water as solvent. Subsequently, repeated washings with pure water were performed to extract PEO, potassium acetate and carbonate salts formed in the course of chitosan nanofiber purification. The increase of PEO content in the blend from 20 to 40 w% exhibited bead-free fibers with average diameters 85 ± 19 and 147 ± 28 nm, respectively. Their NMR analysis proved that PEO and the salts were nearly completely removed from the nanostructure of chitosan, demonstrating that the adopted strategy is successful for producing pure chitosan nanofibers. In addition, the nanofibers obtained after neutralization in ethanol-aqueous solution has better structural stability, at least for six months in aqueous solutions (phosphate buffer (PBS) or water). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitins 2016)

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4132 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protein/CaCO₃/Chitin Nanofiber Complex Prepared from Crab Shells by Simple Mechanical Treatment and Its Effect on Plant Growth

by Yihun Fantahun Aklog, Mayumi Egusa, Hironori Kaminaka, Hironori Izawa, Minoru Morimoto, Hiroyuki Saimoto and Shinsuke Ifuku

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(10), 1600; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17101600 - 22 Sep 2016

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7948

Abstract

A protein/CaCO₃/chitin nanofiber complex was prepared from crab shells by a simple mechanical treatment with a high-pressure water-jet (HPWJ) system. The preparation process did not involve chemical treatments, such as removal of protein and calcium carbonate with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric [...] Read more.

A protein/CaCO₃/chitin nanofiber complex was prepared from crab shells by a simple mechanical treatment with a high-pressure water-jet (HPWJ) system. The preparation process did not involve chemical treatments, such as removal of protein and calcium carbonate with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, respectively. Thus, it was economically and environmentally friendly. The nanofibers obtained had uniform width and dispersed homogeneously in water. Nanofibers were characterized in morphology, transparency, and viscosity. Results indicated that the shell was mostly disintegrated into nanofibers at above five cycles of the HPWJ system. The chemical structure of the nanofiber was maintained even after extensive mechanical treatments. Subsequently, the nanofiber complex was found to improve the growth of tomatoes in a hydroponics system, suggesting the mechanical treatments efficiently released minerals into the system. The homogeneous dispersion of the nanofiber complex enabled easier application as a fertilizer compared to the crab shell flakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitins 2016)

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1166 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Evaluation of Enteric-Coated Chitosan Derivative-Based Microparticles Loaded with Salmon Calcitonin as an Oral Delivery System

by Hiraku Onishi and Ayako Tokuyasu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(9), 1546; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17091546 - 13 Sep 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4800

Abstract

Background: The production of protein drugs has recently increased due to advances in biotechnology, but their clinical use is generally limited to parenteral administration due to low absorption in non-parenteral administration. Therefore, non-parenteral delivery systems allowing sufficient absorption draw much attention. Methods: Microparticles [...] Read more.

Background: The production of protein drugs has recently increased due to advances in biotechnology, but their clinical use is generally limited to parenteral administration due to low absorption in non-parenteral administration. Therefore, non-parenteral delivery systems allowing sufficient absorption draw much attention. Methods: Microparticles (MP) were prepared using chitosan-4-thio-butylamidine conjugate (Ch-TBA), trimethyl-chitosan (TMC), and chitosan (Ch). Using salmon calcitonin (sCT) as a model protein drug, Ch-TBA-, Ch-TBA/TMC (4/1)-, and Ch-based MP were produced, and their Eudragit L100 (Eud)-coated MP, named Ch-TBA-MP/Eud, Ch-TBA/TMC-MP/Eud, and Ch-MP/Eud, respectively, were prepared as oral delivery systems. These enteric-coated microparticles were examined in vitro and in vivo. Results: All microparticles before and after enteric coating had a submicron size (600–800 nm) and micrometer size (1300–1500 nm), respectively. In vitro release patterns were similar among all microparticles; release occurred gradually, and the release rate was slower at pH 1.2 than at pH 6.8. In oral ingestion, Ch-TBA-MP/Eud suppressed plasma Ca levels most effectively among the microparticles tested. The relative effectiveness of Ch-TBA-MP/Eud to the intramuscular injection was 8.6%, while the sCT solution showed no effectiveness. Conclusion: The results suggest that Eud-coated Ch-TBA-based microparticles should have potential as an oral delivery system of protein drugs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitins 2016)

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815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Phosphate, Potassium, Yeast Extract, and Trace Metals on Chitosan and Metabolite Production by Mucor indicus

by Zahra Safaei, Keikhosro Karimi and Akram Zamani

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(9), 1429; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17091429 - 30 Aug 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5644

Abstract

In this study the effects of phosphate, potassium, yeast extract, and trace metals on the growth of Mucor indicus and chitosan, chitin, and metabolite production by the fungus were investigated. Maximum yield of chitosan (0.32 g/g cell wall) was obtained in a phosphate-free [...] Read more.

In this study the effects of phosphate, potassium, yeast extract, and trace metals on the growth of Mucor indicus and chitosan, chitin, and metabolite production by the fungus were investigated. Maximum yield of chitosan (0.32 g/g cell wall) was obtained in a phosphate-free medium. Reversely, cell growth and ethanol formation by the fungus were positively affected in the presence of phosphate. In a phosphate-free medium, the highest chitosan content (0.42 g/g cell wall) and cell growth (0.66 g/g sugar) were obtained at 2.5 g/L of KOH. Potassium concentration had no significant effect on ethanol and glycerol yields. The presence of trace metals significantly increased the chitosan yield at an optimal phosphate and potassium concentration (0.50 g/g cell wall). By contrast, production of ethanol by the fungus was negatively affected (0.33 g/g sugars). A remarkable increase in chitin and decrease in chitosan were observed in the absence of yeast extract and concentrations lower than 2 g/L. The maximum chitosan yield of 51% cell wall was obtained at 5 g/L of yeast extract when the medium contained no phosphate, 2.5 g/L KOH, and 1 mL/L trace metal solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitins 2016)

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2990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Femtosecond Laser Patterning of the Biopolymer Chitosan for Biofilm Formation

by Regina Estevam-Alves, Paulo Henrique Dias Ferreira, Andrey C. Coatrini, Osvaldo N. Oliveira, Carla Raquel Fontana and Cleber Renato Mendonca

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(8), 1243; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17081243 - 19 Aug 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5580

Abstract

Controlling microbial growth is crucial for many biomedical, pharmaceutical and food industry applications. In this paper, we used a femtosecond laser to microstructure the surface of chitosan, a biocompatible polymer that has been explored for applications ranging from antimicrobial action to drug delivery. [...] Read more.

Controlling microbial growth is crucial for many biomedical, pharmaceutical and food industry applications. In this paper, we used a femtosecond laser to microstructure the surface of chitosan, a biocompatible polymer that has been explored for applications ranging from antimicrobial action to drug delivery. The influence of energy density on the features produced on chitosan was investigated by optical and atomic force microscopies. An increase in the hydrophilic character of the chitosan surface was attained upon laser micromachining. Patterned chitosan films were used to observe Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) biofilm formation, revealing an increase in the biofilm formation in the structured regions. Our results indicate that fs-laser micromachining is an attractive option to pattern biocompatible surfaces, and to investigate basic aspects of the relationship between surface topography and bacterial adhesion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitins 2016)

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1615 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Amphiprotic Novel Chitosanase from Bacillus mycoides and Its Application in the Production of Chitooligomers with Their Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Evaluation

by Tzu-Wen Liang, Wei-Ting Chen, Zhi-Hu Lin, Yao-Haur Kuo, Anh Dzung Nguyen, Po-Shen Pan and San-Lang Wang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(8), 1302; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17081302 - 10 Aug 2016

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 6247

Abstract

The objectives of this investigation were to produce a novel chitosanase for application in industries and waste treatment. The transformation of chitinous biowaste into valuable bioactive chitooligomers (COS) is one of the most exciting applications of chitosanase. An amphiprotic novel chitosanase from Bacillus [...] Read more.

The objectives of this investigation were to produce a novel chitosanase for application in industries and waste treatment. The transformation of chitinous biowaste into valuable bioactive chitooligomers (COS) is one of the most exciting applications of chitosanase. An amphiprotic novel chitosanase from Bacillus mycoides TKU038 using squid pen powder (SPP)-containing medium was retrieved from a Taiwan soil sample, which was purified by column chromatography, and characterized by biochemical protocol. Extracellular chitosanase (CS038) was purified to 130-fold with a 35% yield, and its molecular mass was roughly 48 kDa. CS038 was stable over a wide range of pH values (4–10) at 50 °C and exhibited an optimal temperature of 50 °C. Interestingly, the optimum pH values were estimated as 6 and 10, whereas CS038 exhibited chitosan-degrading activity (100% and 94%, respectively). CS038 had K_m and V_max values of 0.098 mg/mL and 1.336 U/min, separately, using different concentrations of water-soluble chitosan. A combination of the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometer data revealed that the chitosan oligosaccharides obtained from the hydrolysis of chitosan by CS038 comprise oligomers with multiple degrees of polymerization (DP), varying from 3–9, as well as CS038 in an endolytic fashion. The TKU038 culture supernatant and COS mixture exhibited 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activities. The COS activities were dose dependent and correlated to their DP. The COS with high DP exhibited enhanced DPPH radical scavenging capability compared with COS with low DP. Furthermore, the COS exhibited inhibitory behavior on nitric oxide (NO) production in murine RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, which was induced by Escherichia coli O111 lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The COS with low DP possesses a more potent anti-inflammatory capability to decrease NO production (IC₅₀, 76.27 ± 1.49 µg/mL) than that of COS with high DP (IC₅₀, 82.65 ± 1.18 µg/mL). Given its effectiveness in production and purification, acidophilic and alkalophilic properties, stability over ranges of pH values, ability to generate COS, antioxidant activity, and anti-inflammatory, CS038 has potential applications in SPP waste treatment and industries for COS production as a medical prebiotic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitins 2016)

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Review

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Open AccessReview

Multicomponent, Tumor-Homing Chitosan Nanoparticles for Cancer Imaging and Therapy

by Jaehong Key and Kyeongsoon Park

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(3), 594; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18030594 - 8 Mar 2017

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 7768

Abstract

Current clinical methods for cancer diagnosis and therapy have limitations, although survival periods are increasing as medical technologies develop. In most cancer cases, patient survival is closely related to cancer stage. Late-stage cancer after metastasis is very challenging to cure because current surgical [...] Read more.

Current clinical methods for cancer diagnosis and therapy have limitations, although survival periods are increasing as medical technologies develop. In most cancer cases, patient survival is closely related to cancer stage. Late-stage cancer after metastasis is very challenging to cure because current surgical removal of cancer is not precise enough and significantly affects bystander normal tissues. Moreover, the subsequent chemotherapy and radiation therapy affect not only malignant tumors, but also healthy tissues. Nanotechnologies for cancer treatment have the clear objective of solving these issues. Nanoparticles have been developed to more accurately differentiate early-stage malignant tumors and to treat only the tumors while dramatically minimizing side effects. In this review, we focus on recent chitosan-based nanoparticles developed with the goal of accurate cancer imaging and effective treatment. Regarding imaging applications, we review optical and magnetic resonance cancer imaging in particular. Regarding cancer treatments, we review various therapeutic methods that use chitosan-based nanoparticles, including chemo-, gene, photothermal, photodynamic and magnetic therapies. Full article

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739 KiB

Open AccessReview

Chitin Adsorbents for Toxic Metals: A Review

by Ioannis Anastopoulos, Amit Bhatnagar, Dimitrios N. Bikiaris and George Z. Kyzas

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(1), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18010114 - 7 Jan 2017

Cited by 125 | Viewed by 9823

Abstract

Wastewater treatment is still a critical issue all over the world. Among examined methods for the decontamination of wastewaters, adsorption is a promising, cheap, environmentally friendly and efficient procedure. There are various types of adsorbents that have been used to remove different pollutants [...] Read more.

Wastewater treatment is still a critical issue all over the world. Among examined methods for the decontamination of wastewaters, adsorption is a promising, cheap, environmentally friendly and efficient procedure. There are various types of adsorbents that have been used to remove different pollutants such as agricultural waste, compost, nanomaterials, algae, etc., Chitin (poly-β-(1,4)-N-acetyl-d-glucosamine) is the second most abundant natural biopolymer and it has attracted scientific attention as an inexpensive adsorbent for toxic metals. This review article provides information about the use of chitin as an adsorbent. A list of chitin adsorbents with maximum adsorption capacity and the best isotherm and kinetic fitting models are provided. Moreover, thermodynamic studies, regeneration studies, the mechanism of adsorption and the experimental conditions are also discussed in depth. Full article

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