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11 pages, 1224 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Four-Month Training on Biochemical Variables in Amateur Cross-Country Skiers

by Natalia Grzebisz-Zatońska

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(20), 6026; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13206026 - 10 Oct 2024

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Abstract

Background/Objectives: Research on the effects of training on the health of amateur cross-country skiers remains limited, particularly on biochemical parameters. Therefore, this study aimed to assess such changes in response to four months of training for amateur cross-country skiers. Methods: Blood [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Research on the effects of training on the health of amateur cross-country skiers remains limited, particularly on biochemical parameters. Therefore, this study aimed to assess such changes in response to four months of training for amateur cross-country skiers. Methods: Blood samples were collected after spring training in May (active rest) and in September at the end of the preparatory period. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for comparison of both measurements (initial and final). Results: Training in a group of amateur cross-country skiers exerts a statistically significant influence on the decrease in leukocyte count (thousand/µL) (p = 0.045) and the decrease in mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) (g/dL) (p = 0.021). The other parameters did not show statistically significant changes. Conclusions: The change in MCHC and WBC can be attributed to adaptation to prolonged exercise, with a simultaneous increase in VO₂ max. It should not be identified with pathology. The decrease in MCHC was likely attributable to changes in hydration status and a slight reduction in hemoglobin concentration. Similarly, it is recommended that other biochemical parameters be within the reference ranges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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14 pages, 271 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Circulating Free Cellular DNA to Repeated Exercise in Men with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

by Konrad Walczak, Julia Grzybowska-Adamowicz, Robert Stawski, Olga Brzezińska, Agnieszka Zmysłowska and Dariusz Nowak

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(19), 5859; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13195859 - 1 Oct 2024

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Abstract

Background: Intense exercise leads to neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation, which triggers cell disintegration. NET, as well as other processes of apoptosis, necrosis, and spontaneous secretion, result in increased levels of cell-free DNA (cf-DNA) in the circulation. An increment of cf-DNA is also [...] Read more.

Background: Intense exercise leads to neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation, which triggers cell disintegration. NET, as well as other processes of apoptosis, necrosis, and spontaneous secretion, result in increased levels of cell-free DNA (cf-DNA) in the circulation. An increment of cf-DNA is also observed in autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Repeated exhaustive exercises are an impulse for physiological adaptation; therefore, in this case–control study, we compared the exercise-induced increase in cf-DNA in men with T1DM and healthy controls to determine the development of the tolerance to exercise. Methods: Volunteers performed a treadmill run to exhaustion at a speed matching 70% of their personal VO2 max at three consecutive visits, separated by a 72 h resting period. Blood was collected before and after exercise for the determination of plasma cell-free nuclear and mitochondrial DNA (cf n-DNA, cf mt-DNA) by real-time PCR, blood cell count and metabolic markers. Results: Each bout of exhaustive exercise induced a great elevation of cf n-DNA levels. An increase in cf mt-DNA was observed after each run. However, the significance of the increase was noted only after the second bout in T1DM participants (p < 0.02). Changes in cf-DNA concentration were transient and returned to baseline values during 72 h of resting. The exercise-induced increment in circulating cf n-DNA and cf mt-DNA was not significantly different between the studied groups (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Cf-DNA appears to be a sensitive marker of inflammation, with a lower post-exercise increase in individuals with T1DM than in healthy men. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

27 pages, 2708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Plasma Concentration of Free Proteinogenic and Non-Proteinogenic Amino Acids in High-Performance Sprinters over a 6-Month Training Cycle

by Krzysztof Kusy, Jan Matysiak, Ewa Anna Zarębska, Agnieszka Klupczyńska-Gabryszak, Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak, Szymon Plewa, Zenon J. Kokot, Paweł Dereziński and Jacek Zieliński

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(17), 5300; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13175300 - 6 Sep 2024

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Abstract

Background/Objectives: Free amino acids substantially contribute to energy metabolism. Also, their profile may identify (over)training status and effectiveness. The long-term effects of speed-power training on plasma free amino acid (PFAA) profiles are not known. We aimed to observe variations in PFAA levels in [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Free amino acids substantially contribute to energy metabolism. Also, their profile may identify (over)training status and effectiveness. The long-term effects of speed-power training on plasma free amino acid (PFAA) profiles are not known. We aimed to observe variations in PFAA levels in high-performance sprinters in a six-month training cycle. Methods: Ten male athletes (24.6 ± 3.3 years) were examined during four training phases: transition (1 month), general preparation (2 months), specific preparation (1 month), and pre-competition/competition (2 months). Venous blood was collected at rest, after exhaustive exercise, and recovery. Forty-two PFAAs were analyzed by the LC-ESI-MS/MS method. Results: Significant decreases in resting concentrations were observed between the transition and competition phases for glutamine (762 ± 117 vs. 623 ± 53 μmol∙L⁻¹; p < 0.001, η² = 0.47) and histidine (89 ± 15 vs. 75 ± 10 μmol∙L⁻¹; p = 0.010, η² = 0.27), whereas β-alanine (30 ± 7 vs. 41 ± 9 μmol∙L⁻¹; p = 0.024, η² = 016) and sarcosine (3.6 ± 0.4 vs. 4.8 ± 0.6 μmol∙L⁻¹; p = 0.006, η² = 0.188) levels increased. Between the specific and competition phases, significant decreases in the resting levels of 1-methylhistidine (22.1 ± 19.4 vs. 9.6 ± 8.8 μmol∙L⁻¹; p = 0.14, η² = 0.19), 3-methylhistidine (7.1 ± 1.5 vs. 6.5 ± 1.6 μmol∙L⁻¹; p = 0.009, η² = 0.18), citrulline (40 ± 10 vs. 29 ± 4 μmol∙L⁻¹; p = 0.05, η² = 0.29), and ornithine (74 ± 15 vs. 56 ± 10 μmol∙L⁻¹; p = 0.015, η² = 185) were noticed. Also, for β-alanine and sarcosine, the pattern of response to exercise strongly changed between the training phases. Blood ammonia levels at exhaustion decreased between the transition and competition phases (32 ± 4 vs. 23 ± 5 μmol∙L⁻¹; p < 0.001, η² = 0.67), while lactate, the phenylalanine–tyrosine ratio, the glutamine–glutamate ratio, hematological parameters, and cardiorespiratory indices remained at similar levels. Conclusions: Speed-power training seems to affect PFAAs involved in skeletal muscle metabolic pathways responsible for neutralizing toxic ammonia (glutamine, arginine, citrulline, ornithine), attenuating the deleterious effects of H⁺ ions (histidine, β-alanine), and reducing exercise-induced protein breakdown (1- and 3-methylhistidine). Our findings suggest that sprint-oriented training supports metabolic pathways that are responsible for the removal of harmful metabolites produced during exercise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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15 pages, 1612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sex Differences in the Energy System Contribution during Sprint Exercise in Speed-Power and Endurance Athletes

by Damian Archacki, Jacek Zieliński, Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak, Ewa Anna Zarębska and Krzysztof Kusy

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(16), 4812; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13164812 - 15 Aug 2024

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Abstract

Background/Objectives: A high level of specific metabolic capacity is essential for maximal sprinting in both male and female athletes. Various factors dictate sex differences in maximal power production and energy utilization. This study aims to compare the contribution of energy systems between [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: A high level of specific metabolic capacity is essential for maximal sprinting in both male and female athletes. Various factors dictate sex differences in maximal power production and energy utilization. This study aims to compare the contribution of energy systems between male and female athletes with similar sport-specific physiological adaptations during a 15-s sprint exercise. Methods: The endurance group consisted of 17 males (23 ± 7 y) and 17 females (20 ± 2 y). The speed-power group included 14 males (21.1 ± 2.6 y) and 14 females (20 ± 3 y). The contribution of phosphagen, glycolytic, and aerobic systems was determined using the three-component PCr-LA-O₂ method. Results: Significant differences were observed in the energy expenditure for all systems and total energy expenditure between males and females in both groups (p = 0.001–0.013). The energy expenditure in kJ for individual systems (phosphagen–glycolytic–aerobic) was 35:25:7 vs. 20:16:5 in endurance males vs. female athletes, respectively. In the speed-power group, male athletes expended 33:37:6 kJ and female athletes expended 21:25:4 kJ, respectively. The percentage proportions did not differ between males and females in any system. The contribution of the phosphagen–glycolytic–aerobic systems was 52:37:11 vs. 48:39:13 in endurance male and female athletes, respectively. For speed-power males vs. female athletes, the proportions were 42:50:8 vs. 41:50:9, respectively. Conclusions: Despite the differences in body composition, mechanical output, and absolute energy expenditure, the energy system contribution appears to have a similar metabolic effect between male and female athletes engaged in sprint exercises with similar sport-related adaptations. The magnitude and profile of sex differences are related to sports discipline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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14 pages, 999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Countermovement Jump and Sprint Performance in Professional Football Players

by Łukasz Oleksy, Anna Mika, Maciej Kuchciak, Artur Stolarczyk, Olga Adamska, Miłosz Szczudło, Renata Kielnar, Paweł Wolański, Jarosław Michał Deszczyński and Paweł Reichert

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(15), 4581; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13154581 - 5 Aug 2024

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Abstract

Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between the countermovement jump (CMJ) and sprint performance of professional football players, and to determine which strength and speed elements assessed by the CMJ translate into effective running. Methods: The research sample [...] Read more.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between the countermovement jump (CMJ) and sprint performance of professional football players, and to determine which strength and speed elements assessed by the CMJ translate into effective running. Methods: The research sample comprised 87 male professional football players (age 23.7 ± 4.20 years; body mass 82.33 ± 6.56 kg; body height 1.86 ± 0.05 m) who performed the CMJ on a dual-force platform, as well as the 30 m sprint test. The time and velocity of the run were recorded by photocells at 0, 5, 10, and 30 m of the distance. Results: No significant differences were noted in the time or velocity of the sprint over the initial 5 m between the groups of football players with a higher and lower braking rate of force development (RFD) in the CMJ (p > 0.05). However, at subsequent intervals (5–10 m and 10–30 m), players with a higher braking RFD achieved significantly better time and velocity than those with a lower RFD. Significant correlations in the group with a lower braking RFD between the CMJ and sprint variables occurred in the propulsion phase of the CMJ and most of them were in the first interval (0–5 m). In the group with a higher braking RFD, significant relationships were visible in both the propulsion (concentric) and braking (eccentric) phases of the CMJ, mainly during the second and third intervals of the sprint test. Conclusions: The noted observations may suggest that the relationship between strength and running performance is more complex than previously indicated, and that higher strength in the CMJ does not fully correlate with better sprinting. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that training aimed at generally increasing strength may not always be fully beneficial for running performance in football players and hence specific training guidelines are suggested for targeted strengthening of the required muscle performance characteristics. This may possibly contribute to reducing the unnecessary muscle overload during both training and matches, thereby preventing sports-related injuries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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18 pages, 1828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Whole Body Vibration Training Has No Effect on Vascular Endothelial and Inflammatory Markers in Young Healthy Women

by Halina Gattner, Justyna Adamiak, Olga Czerwińska-Ledwig, Sylwia Mętel, Magdalena Kępińska-Szyszkowska and Anna Piotrowska

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(14), 4228; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13144228 - 19 Jul 2024

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Abstract

Background: The aim of the study was to comparatively assess the impact of single and repeated whole body vibration training (WBVT) and training without vibration on changes in the concentration of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and high-sensitivity [...] Read more.

Background: The aim of the study was to comparatively assess the impact of single and repeated whole body vibration training (WBVT) and training without vibration on changes in the concentration of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) in healthy, young, non-training women. Methods: The study involved 46 women (age 20.48 ± 1.72 years), who were divided into three groups: the experimental group participating in WBVT (EVG, n = 17); the comparison group performing the same exercises but without the vibration factor (EXG, n = 12); and the control group, which did not participate in any training (CON, n = 17). The program included participation in 36 training sessions conducted over 12 weeks, with a frequency of 3 times per week. In the EVG and EXG groups, venous blood was collected before and after the first and last training sessions, while in the CON group, blood was collected twice at a 3-month interval. Results: No significant changes were observed in the concentrations of the studied markers either after a single or repeated training session in both experimental groups (p > 0.05). Conclusions: The proposed WBVT protocol appears to be a safe form of exercise that does not induce negative inflammatory reactions. The applied vibration stimulus combined with physical exercises did not initiate pro-angiogenic processes or stimulate eNOS activity in healthy women, suggesting that similar studies should be conducted in individuals with circulatory problems or chronic inflammatory diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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13 pages, 2107 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Muscle Mass and Strength in Adolescents Following High-Intensity Functional Training with Bodyweight Resistance Exercises in Physical Education Lessons

by Dawid Koźlenia, Marek Popowczak, Rafał Szafraniec, Cristian Alvarez and Jarosław Domaradzki

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(12), 3400; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13123400 - 11 Jun 2024

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Abstract

(1) Background: The growing prevalence of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and declining physical fitness among children and adolescents due to sedentary lifestyles has increased attention toward preventive intervention to tackle this issue. This study investigated the age-related effects of high-intensity functional training (HIFT), [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The growing prevalence of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and declining physical fitness among children and adolescents due to sedentary lifestyles has increased attention toward preventive intervention to tackle this issue. This study investigated the age-related effects of high-intensity functional training (HIFT), based on bodyweight resistance exercises conducted during physical education lessons, on muscle mass and strength improvement. (2) Methods: Adolescent males (n = 116) were allocated to four HIFT experimental groups (EGs) and four standard physical education program control groups (CGs) according to age (15, 16, 17, and 18 years [y]). The changes in muscle mass (absolute and relative to height [SMI]), hand–grip strength (HGS), sit-ups (SUs), and standing broad jump (SBJ) were analyzed using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Bonferroni tests. (3) Results: HIFT significantly increased muscle mass and scores in all strength tests (p < 0.01), while chronological age was significant for HGS (p < 0.01). Interactions between HIFT and chronological age categories were observed for HGS (p = 0.01) and SBJ (p < 0.03). Detailed post hoc tests revealed improvement in muscle mass across all chronological age categories for both approaches (p < 0.05). The 18y-EG group improved HGS over their control peers (p < 0.01), the EG groups significantly improved their SU results (p < 0.01), and SBJ improved in the 15y-EG and 18y-EG groups compared to their control (p < 0.01). (4) Conclusions: This research highlights the effectiveness of a school-based HIFT program in promoting muscle mass gains and enhancing muscle strength among adolescents. The findings offer valuable insights for implementing bodyweight exercises during physical education classes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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14 pages, 1478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resistance Training to Muscle Failure with Variable Load Intensities: Implications for Post-Exercise Blood Pressure and Heart Rate Variability in Trained Men

by Ali Kamil Güngör, Hüseyin Topçu, Monira I. Aldhahi, Sameer Badri Al-Mhanna and Mehmet Gülü

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(8), 2296; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13082296 - 16 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1204

Abstract

Background: The modulation of cardiac sympathovagal balance alters following acute resistance training (RT) sessions. Nevertheless, the precise influence of RT at varying load intensities on this physiological response remains to be fully elucidated. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare [...] Read more.

Background: The modulation of cardiac sympathovagal balance alters following acute resistance training (RT) sessions. Nevertheless, the precise influence of RT at varying load intensities on this physiological response remains to be fully elucidated. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the time course of recovery following low- (40%), moderate- (60%), and high- (80%) load-intensity RT protocols performed up to muscle repetition failure in resistance-trained men. Method: Sixteen young, resistance-trained men (mean age: 21.6 ± 2.5 years, mean height: 175.7 ± 8.9 cm, mean weight: 77.1 ± 11.3 kg) participated in a randomized crossover experimental design involving three sessions, each taken to the point of muscle failure. These sessions were characterized by different load intensities: low (40% of 1-repetition maximum, 1RM), moderate (60% of 1RM), and high (80% of 1RM). The exercise regimen comprised four exercises—back squat (BS), bench press (BnP), barbell row (BR), and shoulder press (SP)—with each exercise consisting of three sets. Throughout each session, heart rate variability (HRV) and blood pressure (BP) parameters were assessed both pre-exercise and during a 40 min post-exercise period, segmented into 10 min intervals for stabilization. Statistical analysis involved the use of a repeated measures ANOVA. Results: It was observed that the 40% and 60% RT sessions resulted in a significantly higher root mean square of successive R-R intervals (RMSSD) value compared to the 80% RT session in the post-exercise recovery process in 30 min (respectively, p = 0.025; p = 0.028) and 40 min (respectively, p = 0.031; p = 0.046), while the 40% and 60% RT sessions produced similar responses. The 40% RT session was significantly higher in the high frequency (HF) value post-exercise in 40 min compared to the 80% RT session (p = 0.045). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that engaging in resistance training (RT) sessions to muscle failure at an intensity of 80% induces acute increases in sympathetic activity, potentially leading to elevated cardiovascular stress. For individuals with normal blood pressure, it is advisable to opt for lighter loads and higher repetition volumes when prescribing RT, as heavier-load RT may carry an increased risk of cardiac-related factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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11 pages, 274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Acute Deep Seawater Supplementation on Muscle Function after Triathlon

by Jerónimo Aragón-Vela, Olivia González-Acevedo, Juan Carlos De la Cruz-Márquez, Francisco Javier Rojas Ruíz, Manuel Martínez Marín, Rafael A. Casuso, Julio Plaza-Diaz and Jesus F. Rodriguez Huertas

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(8), 2258; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13082258 - 12 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1045

Abstract

(1) Background: Trainers and athletes have always sought to reduce the failure of muscle function during long endurance events. However, nowadays, it is a topic that is generating much debate in the scientific field. Currently, deep-sea water (DSW) intake seems to be a [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Trainers and athletes have always sought to reduce the failure of muscle function during long endurance events. However, nowadays, it is a topic that is generating much debate in the scientific field. Currently, deep-sea water (DSW) intake seems to be a suitable hydration alternative for this type of endurance event. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether DSW consumption during a triathlon event could preserve muscle function after exercise. (2) Methods: Nineteen trained male triathletes (age = 39.0 ± 4.25 years; BMI = 23.67 ± 1.81 kg/m²) randomly performed three triathlons, one of them consuming DSW (Totum SPORT 30 AB, Laboratories Quinton International, S.L., Spain), the other consuming isotonic placebo and the last with tap water-hydration. A vertical jump test with countermovement and an isometric muscle strength test were conducted before and after the triathlon test. (3) Results: There was a significant difference between treatment × time during the isometric muscle strength test. Based on the Tukey post hoc analysis, the peak net force decreased statistically in the placebo (p = 0.045) and control conditions (p = 0.026), but not in the experimental condition (p = 0.121). In addition, all of the conditions studied obtained similar results in the countermovement vertical jump after exercise. (4) Conclusions: As a result, consumption of DSW seems to delay the failure of muscle function specifically in isometric exercises but does not improve performance in sports. Thus, DSW does not alter muscle capacity in a negative way; therefore, its consumption may be recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

12 pages, 1866 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Combining Blood Flow Restriction with the Nordic Hamstring Exercise on Hamstring Strength: Randomized Controlled Trial

by Necdet Eray Pişkin, Gönül Yavuz, Zait Burak Aktuğ, Monira I. Aldhahi, Sameer Badri Al-Mhanna and Mehmet Gülü

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(7), 2035; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13072035 - 1 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1516

Abstract

(1) Background: It is a matter of curiosity what effect the blood flow restriction (BFR) method, which is usually combined with low-intensity resistance exercises, will have when used with high-intensity eccentric exercises. (2) Methods: The present study examined the effects of combining BFR [...] Read more.

(1) Background: It is a matter of curiosity what effect the blood flow restriction (BFR) method, which is usually combined with low-intensity resistance exercises, will have when used with high-intensity eccentric exercises. (2) Methods: The present study examined the effects of combining BFR with nordic hamstring exercises (NHEs) on hamstring muscle strength, bilateral deficit (BLD), and training volume. Thirty young female volleyball players, who trained three times a week, participated voluntarily in the study. These players were stratified into three groups, each comprising ten individuals: a control group (CG), an NHE group, and an NHE + BFR group. Hamstring muscle strength and BLD values were determined using an H-BORD device, while training volume was measured in terms of sets and repetitions. (3) Results: Statistical analysis revealed that there were no statistically significant differences in non-dominant and dominant leg peak torque parameters in the exercise groups (F = 2.65; p = 0.097; η_p² = 0.17; F = 1.15; p = 0.0334; η_p² = 0.084), while the total training volume was lower in the NHE + BFR group. (4) Conclusions: As a result, it was seen that adding the BFR method to NHE did not provide additional gains. However, due to the low training volume of BFR + NHE, it may be recommended to apply BFR together with NHE to athlete groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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14 pages, 1660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Upper Limb Functional Assessment and Clinical Tests of Shoulder Mobility and Posture in Individuals Participating in Recreational Strength Training

by Magdalena Zawadka, Marta Gaweł, Agnieszka Tomczyk-Warunek, Karolina Turżańska and Tomasz Blicharski

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(4), 1028; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13041028 - 10 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1544

Abstract

Background: The upper limb is crucial for functioning in everyday life, thus comprehensive assessment is crucial for physically active people to monitor the effect of exercise and prevent injuries. The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between upper limb function, [...] Read more.

Background: The upper limb is crucial for functioning in everyday life, thus comprehensive assessment is crucial for physically active people to monitor the effect of exercise and prevent injuries. The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between upper limb function, shoulder mobility, and posture in individuals who participate in recreational strength training. Methods: Thirty-four subjects who engaged in strength training of the upper limbs were divided into two groups: Group 1 (exercise < 3 years) and Group 2 (exercise ≥ 3 years). Lateral scapular slide tests, head and clavicle posture evaluations, and shoulder mobility and closed kinetic chain tests were performed. Results: Group 1 had a greater flexion deficit in both shoulders than Group 2. There was greater external rotation in the non-dominant shoulder and a greater score of the closed kinetic chain test in Group 2 compared to Group 1. There were no statistically significant differences between groups regarding scapula, clavicle, and head posture. The closed kinetic chain test was correlated with a scapula position and symmetry in shoulder flexion in Group 2. Conclusions: Long-term strength training of the upper limbs can be recommended to improve functional abilities in the closed kinetic chain, increase shoulder mobility, and reduce asymmetry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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22 pages, 4869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Various Hydration Strategies on Work Intensity and Selected Physiological Indices in Young Male Athletes during Prolonged Physical Exercise at High Ambient Temperatures

by Tomasz Pałka, Łukasz Rydzik, Piotr Michał Koteja, Anna Piotrowska, Małgorzata Bagińska, Tadeusz Ambroży, Boryana Angelova-Igova, Norollah Javdaneh, Szczepan Wiecha, Aleksandra Filip-Stachnik and Łukasz Tota

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(4), 982; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13040982 - 8 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1649

Abstract

Background: In high temperatures, adequate hydration is vital for sustained physical exercise. This study explores the effect of three hydration strategies on physiological indices and work intensity. Methods: The research involved 12 healthy males who engaged in three test series, each [...] Read more.

Background: In high temperatures, adequate hydration is vital for sustained physical exercise. This study explores the effect of three hydration strategies on physiological indices and work intensity. Methods: The research involved 12 healthy males who engaged in three test series, each separated by a one-week interval. During the trials, participants underwent a 120 min cycling session in a thermal climate chamber (temperature: 31 ± 2 °C, humidity: 60 ± 3%, air movement: <1 m/s). Measurements of rectal temperature (Tre) and heart rate (HR), and assessment of subjective workload perception, and thermal comfort were made both before and during the exercise. The computation of the physical strain index (PSI) relied on Tre and HR values. Three hydration strategies (isotonic drink, water, and no hydration) were administered before, during, and after the exercise. Results: Regardless of the hydration strategy, the participants’ mean body mass decreased as a result of the exercise. Statistically significant differences in HR were observed between the no-hydration and water groups (p < 0.036). The mean PSI values significantly varied between hydration strategies, with the no hydration group exhibiting a higher PSI compared to the isotonic drink or water groups (p < 0.001). Conclusions: All hydration strategies contribute to thermoregulatory processes and mitigate the rise in internal body temperature during sustained physical exercise in elevated ambient temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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10 pages, 1072 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Analysis of Course of Changes in Blood Lactate Concentration in Response to Graded Exercise Test and Modified Wingate Test in Adolescent Road Cyclists

by Bartosz Zając

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(2), 535; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13020535 - 17 Jan 2024

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Abstract

Background: The purpose of this study was to analyze the course of changes in the blood lactate (BL) concentration in response to the graded exercise test (GXT) and the modified Wingate test (MWT). Methods: This study involved 23 male highly trained road cyclists [...] Read more.

Background: The purpose of this study was to analyze the course of changes in the blood lactate (BL) concentration in response to the graded exercise test (GXT) and the modified Wingate test (MWT). Methods: This study involved 23 male highly trained road cyclists (age: 16.2 ± 1.1 years; experience: 5.0 ± 2.1 years; VO₂max 59.0 ± 3.5 mL × kg⁻¹ × min⁻¹). The analysis of BL concentration was conducted using an enzymatic–amperometric electrochemical technique. Results: Our study provided the following information: (i) peak BL concentration in response to GXT (12.86 ± 2.32 mmol × L⁻¹) and MWT (12.85 ± 1.47 mmol × L⁻¹) is expected around the third minute after the completion of the trial; (ii) 60 min is not a sufficient period for BL concentration to return to resting values after GXT; (iii) post-GXT BL removal during the 60 min period is unsteady (3–20 min: −2.6 ± −0.6% × min⁻¹; 20–60 min: −1.6 ± −0.3% × min⁻¹; p-value for comparison < 0.01), whereas post-MWT BL removal during the 12 min period appears to be constant (3–6 min: −2.4 ± −5.6% × min⁻¹, 6–9 min: −2.6 ± −1.8 % × min⁻¹; 9–12 min: −3.1 ± −2.1 % × min⁻¹; p-value for all comparisons < 0.01). Conclusions: When aiming to obtain valuable data regarding the course of changes in BL concentration during the post-exertion period, it is essential to consider the number of measurements and the time points in sample collection for analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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10 pages, 291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Two Different Self-Paced Training Modalities on the Aerobic Fitness Levels, Psychophysiological Responses, and Antioxidant Status in Physically Active Young Adults

by Yusuf Soylu, Peter Krustrup, Magni Mohr, Ersan Arslan, Bulent Kilit and Łukasz Radzimiński

J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12(23), 7232; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12237232 - 22 Nov 2023

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Abstract

This study aims to investigate the effects of self-paced high-intensity interval training (Sp-HIIT) vs. self-paced moderate-intensity continuous training (Sp-MICT) on aerobic fitness levels, psychophysiological responses, and antioxidant status to assess the relationship between aerobic fitness levels and antioxidant markers. Physically active young adults [...] Read more.

This study aims to investigate the effects of self-paced high-intensity interval training (Sp-HIIT) vs. self-paced moderate-intensity continuous training (Sp-MICT) on aerobic fitness levels, psychophysiological responses, and antioxidant status to assess the relationship between aerobic fitness levels and antioxidant markers. Physically active young adults were randomised into Sp-HIIT and Sp-MICT groups. The intervention consisted of three weekly sessions during an eight-week period. Sp-HIIT consisted of performing two sets of 12–24 × 30 s high-intensity runs ≥ 85% HR_max followed by 30 s rest periods, while Sp-MICT consisted of performing 24–48 min of continuous running at 60–75% HR_max. Pre- and post-intervention testing included a maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max) assessment during a 30-15 intermittent fitness test (30-15 IFT), as well as resting blood samples, which were analysed for oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde (MDA)) and activity of intracellular antioxidant enzymes (catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reduced (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG)). The Sp-HIIT group showed a greater improvement in velocity of 30-15 IFT, VO_2max, and MDA responses. Furthermore, the Sp-HIIT group demonstrated higher psychophysiological responses than the Sp-MICT group, except for anger responses. In conclusion, these results suggest that Sp-HIIT has a higher level of beneficial exercise-induced effects in physiological responses with greater perceived exertion in physically active young adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

12 pages, 889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Minimal Detectable Change in Resting Blood Pressure and Cardiorespiratory Fitness: A Secondary Analysis of a Study on School-Based High-Intensity Interval Training Intervention

by Jarosław Domaradzki

J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12(19), 6146; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12196146 - 23 Sep 2023

Viewed by 997

Abstract

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) effects on resting blood pressure (BP) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) have already been studied. Furthermore, the responses of responders and non-responders to HIIT in terms of these physiological outcomes have also been examined. However, the minimal detectable change (MDC) [...] Read more.

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) effects on resting blood pressure (BP) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) have already been studied. Furthermore, the responses of responders and non-responders to HIIT in terms of these physiological outcomes have also been examined. However, the minimal detectable change (MDC) in BP and CRF has not been addressed yet. Therefore, the current study aimed to compare the MDC₉₀ of BP (systolic and diastolic) and CRF (fitness index (FI) results) in the context of a school-based HIIT program for adolescents. Participants were adolescents, with an average age of 16.16 years (n = 141; 36.6% males). A preplanned secondary analysis was conducted using pre–post data from the control group to estimate MDC₉₀. The MDC₉₀ of SBP, DBP, and FI were 7.82 mm HG, 12.45 mm HG, and 5.39 points, respectively. However, taking into account the relative values of these changes, MDC₉₀ required a greater change in DBP (17.27%) than FI (12.15%) and SBP (6.68%). Any training-induced physiological changes in the average values of the outcomes did not exceed MDC₉₀. However, a comparison of the participants who exceeded and did not exceed MDC₉₀ showed statistically significant differences. These findings reveal the huge variability in and insensitivity to the intervention effect for all measurements. This is likely because of the large subgroup of participants with low sensitivity to the physiological stimulus. As such, there is a considerable need to create individually tailored intervention programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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Review

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13 pages, 281 KiB

Open AccessReview

Target Heart Rate Formulas for Exercise Stress Testing: What Is the Evidence?

by Omar Almaadawy, Barry F. Uretsky, Chayakrit Krittanawong and Yochai Birnbaum

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(18), 5562; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13185562 - 19 Sep 2024

Viewed by 2850

Abstract

Exercise stress testing (EST) is commonly used to evaluate chest pain, with some labs using 85% of age-predicted maximum heart rate (APMHR) as an endpoint for EST. The APMHR is often calculated using the formula 220-age. However, the accuracy of this formula and [...] Read more.

Exercise stress testing (EST) is commonly used to evaluate chest pain, with some labs using 85% of age-predicted maximum heart rate (APMHR) as an endpoint for EST. The APMHR is often calculated using the formula 220-age. However, the accuracy of this formula and 85% APMHR as an endpoint may be questioned. Moreover, failing to reach 85% APMHR (known as chronotropic insufficiency) may also indicate poor cardiovascular prognosis, but measurements, such as percentage heart rate reserve (%HRR), maximum rate pressure product (MRPP), and the maximum metabolic equivalent of tasks (METs) reached during EST may provide better prediction of cardiovascular outcomes than not reaching 85% of APMHR. There is a need to incorporate comprehensive measurements to improve the diagnostic and prognostic capabilities of EST. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

Other

Jump to: Research, Review

19 pages, 2966 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effects of Small-Sided Soccer Games on Physical Fitness and Cardiometabolic Health Biomarkers in Untrained Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Nicolás Gómez-Álvarez, Giorjines Boppre, Felipe Hermosilla-Palma, Tomás Reyes-Amigo, José Oliveira and Hélder Fonseca

J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13(17), 5221; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13175221 - 3 Sep 2024

Viewed by 938

Abstract

Objective: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine the benefits of an exercise intervention based on small-sided soccer games (SSSGs) on health-related physical fitness and cardiometabolic health in previously untrained children and adolescents. Methods: A systematic search on PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, [...] Read more.

Objective: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine the benefits of an exercise intervention based on small-sided soccer games (SSSGs) on health-related physical fitness and cardiometabolic health in previously untrained children and adolescents. Methods: A systematic search on PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus, Cochrane, and EBSCO databases was performed. Randomized or non-randomized controlled trials conducted in previously untrained children or adolescents (age < 18 years) that assessed the effect of SSSG-based intervention on health-related physical fitness and cardiometabolic risk biomarkers were included. Primary outcomes were cardiorespiratory fitness and waist circumference. Evidence was synthesized as the mean difference or standardized mean difference using a random-effects meta-analysis. The quality of evidence was assessed using ROB2 and ROBINS-I tools. Results: Sixteen studies (n = 2872 participants) were included in this meta-analysis. SSSGs significantly improved cardiorespiratory fitness (SMD, 0.12 [0.01; 0.23]) and showed a non-significant trend in decreased waist circumference (−7.49 cm [−15.03; 0.06]). Additionally, SSSGs significantly decreased systolic (MD, −3.85 mmHg [−5.75; −1.94]) and diastolic blood pressure (MD, −1.26 mmHg [−2.44; −0.08]) and triglycerides (−30.34 mg·dL⁻¹ [−45.99; −14.69]). No effects on body composition or other cardiometabolic risk biomarkers were observed. After a sensitivity analysis, waist circumference and muscle strength were also shown to improve significantly following SSSGs. Comparisons between SSSG and other types of exercise interventions showed no differences in improved physical fitness or cardiometabolic risk. Conclusions: SSSG-based interventions effectively improve cardiorespiratory fitness, blood pressure, triglycerides, muscle strength, and waist circumference. There is less evidence of the effects of SSSGs on other health markers. Particular attention should be given to improving SSSG protocol reporting in future studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sports Exercise: How It Benefits Health and Disease)

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