Journal of Composites Science

Editorial

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4 pages, 192 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for the Special Issue on Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites

by Yuan Chen

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(9), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8090344 - 3 Sep 2024

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Abstract

Advanced composites are attracting increasing attention in industrial applications due to their excellent performance, i [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

Research

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21 pages, 15598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimising Additive Manufacturing to Produce PLA Sandwich Structures by Varying Cell Type and Infill: Effect on Flexural Properties

by Gabriele Marabello, Mohamed Chairi and Guido Di Bella

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(9), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8090360 - 14 Sep 2024

Viewed by 905

Abstract

The objective of this research is to optimize additive manufacturing processes, specifically Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) techniques, to produce sandwich structures. Mono-material specimens made of polylactic acid (PLA) were produced, where both the skin and core were fabricated in a single print. To [...] Read more.

The objective of this research is to optimize additive manufacturing processes, specifically Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) techniques, to produce sandwich structures. Mono-material specimens made of polylactic acid (PLA) were produced, where both the skin and core were fabricated in a single print. To optimize the process, variations were made in both the base cell geometry of the core (Tri-Hexagon and Gyroid) and the core infill (5%, 25%, 50%, and 75%), evaluating their effects on static three-point bending behavior. Optical microscopy was employed to assess both the structure generated by additive manufacturing and the fracture modes. The findings reveal that increasing the infill, and thus the core density, enhances the mechanical properties of the structure, although the improvement is such that samples with 50% infill already demonstrate excellent performance. The difference between hexagonal and Gyroid structures is not significant. Based on microscopic analyses, it is believed that the evolution of 3D printers, from open to closed chamber designs, could significantly improve the deposition of the various layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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20 pages, 4136 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Chopped Carbon Fibers on the Mechanical Properties and Fracture Toughness of 3D-Printed PLA Parts: An Experimental and Simulation Study

by Ahmed Ali Farhan Ogaili, Ali Basem, Mohammed Salman Kadhim, Zainab T. Al-Sharify, Alaa Abdulhady Jaber, Emad Kadum Njim, Luttfi A. Al-Haddad, Mohsin Noori Hamzah and Ehsan S. Al-Ameen

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(7), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8070273 - 15 Jul 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1625

Abstract

The incorporation of fiber reinforcements into polymer matrices has emerged as an effective strategy to enhance the mechanical properties of composites. This study investigated the tensile and fracture behavior of 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) composites reinforced with chopped carbon fibers (CCFs) through experimental [...] Read more.

The incorporation of fiber reinforcements into polymer matrices has emerged as an effective strategy to enhance the mechanical properties of composites. This study investigated the tensile and fracture behavior of 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) composites reinforced with chopped carbon fibers (CCFs) through experimental characterization and finite element analysis (FEA). Composite samples with varying CCF orientations (0°, 0°/90°, +45°/−45°, and 0°/+45°/−45°/90°) were fabricated via fused filament fabrication (FFF) and subjected to tensile and single-edge notched bend (SENB) tests. The experimental results revealed a significant improvement in tensile strength, elastic modulus, and fracture toughness compared to unreinforced PLA. The 0°/+45°/90° orientation exhibited a 3.6% increase in tensile strength, while the +45°/−45° orientation displayed a 29.9% enhancement in elastic modulus and a 29.9% improvement in fracture toughness (259.12 MPa) relative to neat PLA (199.34 MPa√m). An inverse correlation between tensile strength and fracture toughness was observed, attributed to mechanisms such as crack deflection, fiber bridging, and fiber pull-out facilitated by multi-directional fiber orientations. FEA simulations incorporating a transversely isotropic material model and the J-integral approach were conducted using Abaqus, accurately predicting fracture toughness trends with a maximum discrepancy of 8% compared to experimental data. Fractographic analysis elucidated the strengthening mechanisms, highlighting the potential of tailoring CCF orientation to optimize mechanical performance for structural applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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28 pages, 13610 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Evaluation of a Novel Method for Reinforcing Additively Manufactured Polymer Structures with Continuous Fiber Composites

by Sven Meißner, Jiri Kafka, Hannah Isermann, Susanna Labisch, Antonia Kesel, Oliver Eberhardt, Harald Kuolt, Sebastian Scholz, Daniel Kalisch, Sascha Müller, Axel Spickenheuer and Lothar Kroll

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(7), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8070272 - 14 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 945

Abstract

Additively manufactured polymer structures often exhibit strong anisotropies due to their layered composition. Although existing methods in additive manufacturing (AM) for improving the mechanical properties are available, they usually do not eliminate the high degree of structural anisotropy. Existing methods for continuous fiber [...] Read more.

Additively manufactured polymer structures often exhibit strong anisotropies due to their layered composition. Although existing methods in additive manufacturing (AM) for improving the mechanical properties are available, they usually do not eliminate the high degree of structural anisotropy. Existing methods for continuous fiber (cF) reinforcement in AM can significantly increase the mechanical properties in the strand direction, but often do not improve the interlaminar strength between the layers. In addition, it is mostly not possible to deposit cFs three-dimensionally and curved (variable–axial) and, thus, in a path that is suitable for the load case requirements. There is a need for AM methods and design approaches that enable cF reinforcements in a variable–axial way, independently of the AM mounting direction. Therefore, a novel two-stage method is proposed in which the process steps of AM and cF integration are decoupled from each other. This study presents the development and validation of the method. It was first investigated at the specimen level, where a significant improvement in the mechanical properties was achieved compared to unreinforced polymer structures. The Young’s modulus and tensile strength were increased by factors of 9.1 and 2.7, respectively. In addition, the design guidelines were derived based on sample structures, and the feasibility of the method was demonstrated on complex cantilevers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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18 pages, 9735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Microstructural and Mechanical Behavior of DLP-Printed Nickel Microparticle Composites

by Benny Susanto, Vishnu Vijay Kumar, Leonard Sean, Murni Handayani, Farid Triawan, Yosephin Dewiani Rahmayanti, Haris Ardianto and Muhammad Akhsin Muflikhun

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(7), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8070247 - 29 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1075

Abstract

The study investigates the fabrication and analysis of nickel microparticle-reinforced composites fabricated using the digital light processing (DLP) technique. A slurry is prepared by incorporating Ni-micro particles into a resin vat; it is thoroughly mixed to achieve homogeneity. Turbidity fluctuations are observed, initially [...] Read more.

The study investigates the fabrication and analysis of nickel microparticle-reinforced composites fabricated using the digital light processing (DLP) technique. A slurry is prepared by incorporating Ni-micro particles into a resin vat; it is thoroughly mixed to achieve homogeneity. Turbidity fluctuations are observed, initially peaking at 50% within the first two minutes of mixing and then stabilizing at 30% after 15–60 min. FTIR spectroscopy with varying Ni wt.% is performed to study the alterations in the composite material’s molecular structure and bonding environment. Spectrophotometric analysis revealed distinctive transmittance signatures at specific wavelengths, particularly within the visible light spectrum, with a notable peak at 532 nm. The effects of printing orientation in the X, Y, and Z axes were also studied. Mechanical properties were computed using tensile strength, surface roughness, and hardness. The results indicate substantial enhancements in the tensile properties, with notable increases of 75.5% in the ultimate tensile strength and 160% in the maximum strain. Minimal alterations in surface roughness and hardness suggest favorable printability. Microscopic examination revealed characteristic fracture patterns in the particulate composite at different values for the wt.% of nickel. The findings demonstrate the potential of DLP-fabricated Ni-reinforced composites for applications demanding enhanced mechanical performance while maintaining favorable printability, paving the way for further exploration in this domain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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15 pages, 2928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Infill Density and Pattern on the Tensile Mechanical Behavior of 3D-Printed Glycolyzed Polyethylene Terephthalate Reinforced with Carbon-Fiber Composites by the FDM Process

by Mohamed Daly, Mostapha Tarfaoui, Mountasar Bouali and Amine Bendarma

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(4), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8040115 - 22 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2268

Abstract

The impacts of infill patterns and densities on the mechanical characteristics of items created by material extrusion additive manufacturing systems were investigated in this study. It is crucial to comprehend how these variables impact a printed object’s mechanical characteristics. This work examined two [...] Read more.

The impacts of infill patterns and densities on the mechanical characteristics of items created by material extrusion additive manufacturing systems were investigated in this study. It is crucial to comprehend how these variables impact a printed object’s mechanical characteristics. This work examined two infill patterns and four densities of 3D-printed polyethylene terephthalate reinforced with carbon-fiber specimens for their tensile characteristics. Rectilinear and honeycomb infill designs were compared at 100%, while each had the following three infill densities: 20%, 50%, and 75%. As predicted, the findings revealed that as the infill densities increased, all analyzed infill patterns’ tensile strengths and Young’s moduli also increased. The design with a 75% honeycomb and 100% infill density has the highest Young’s modulus and tensile strength. The honeycomb was the ideal infill pattern, with 75% and 100% densities, providing significant strength and stiffness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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20 pages, 6328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical and Experimental Characterisation of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Processed by Additive Manufacturing (AM): Bending and Tensile Tests

by Mariana P. Salgueiro, Fábio A. M. Pereira, Carlos L. Faria, Eduardo B. Pereira, João A. P. P. Almeida, Teresa D. Campos, Chaari Fakher, Andrea Zille, Quyền Nguyễn and Nuno Dourado

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8020055 - 1 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1578

Abstract

In additive manufacturing (AM), one of the most popular procedures is material extrusion (MEX). The materials and manufacturing parameters used in this process have a significant impact on a printed product’s quality. The purpose of this work is to investigate the effects of [...] Read more.

In additive manufacturing (AM), one of the most popular procedures is material extrusion (MEX). The materials and manufacturing parameters used in this process have a significant impact on a printed product’s quality. The purpose of this work is to investigate the effects of infill percentage and filament orientation on the mechanical properties of printed structures. For this reason, the characterisation of polylactic acid (PLA) was done numerically using the finite element method and experimentally through mechanical tests. The experiments involved three-point bending and tensile tests. The results showed that mechanical performance is highly dependent on these processing parameters mainly when the infill percentage is less than 100%. The highest elastic modulus was exhibited for structures with filament align at 0° and 100% infill, while the lowest one was verified for specimen filament aligned at 0° and 30% infill. The results demonstrated that the process parameters have a significant impact on mechanical performance, particularly when the infill percentage is less than 100%. Structures with filament aligned at 0° and 100% infill showed the maximum elastic modulus, whereas specimens with filament oriented at 0° and 30% infill showed the lowest. The obtained numerical agreement indicated that an inverse method based only on the load–displacement curve can yield an accurate value for this material’s elastic modulus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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14 pages, 13185 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Additive Manufacturing and Characterization of Sustainable Wood Fiber-Reinforced Green Composites

by Christopher Billings, Ridwan Siddique, Benjamin Sherwood, Joshua Hall and Yingtao Liu

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(12), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7120489 - 26 Nov 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2797

Abstract

Enhancing mechanical properties of environmentally friendly and renewable polymers by the introduction of natural fibers not only paves the way for developing sustainable composites but also enables new opportunities in advanced additive manufacturing (AM). In this paper, wood fibers, as a versatile renewable [...] Read more.

Enhancing mechanical properties of environmentally friendly and renewable polymers by the introduction of natural fibers not only paves the way for developing sustainable composites but also enables new opportunities in advanced additive manufacturing (AM). In this paper, wood fibers, as a versatile renewable resource of cellulose, are integrated within bio-based polylactic acid (PLA) polymer for the development and 3D printing of sustainable and recycle green composites using fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology. The 3D-printed composites are comprehensively characterized to understand critical materials properties, including density, porosity, microstructures, tensile modulus, and ultimate strength. Non-contact digital image correlation (DIC) technology is employed to understand local stress and strain concentration during mechanical testing. The validated FDB-based AM process is employed to print honeycombs, woven bowls, and frame bins to demonstrate the manufacturing capability. The performance of 3D-printed honeycombs is tested under compressive loads with DIC to fully evaluate the mechanical performance and failure mechanism of ultra-light honeycomb structures. The research outcomes can be used to guide the design and optimization of AM-processed composite structures in a broad range of engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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12 pages, 4593 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Additively Manufactured Multifunctional Composite Parts with the Help of Coextrusion Continuous Carbon Fiber: Study of Feasibility to Print Self-Sensing without Doped Raw Material

by Anthonin Demarbaix, Imi Ochana, Julien Levrie, Isaque Coutinho, Sebastião Simões Cunha, Jr. and Marc Moonens

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(9), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7090355 - 25 Aug 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1483

Abstract

Nowadays, the additive manufacturing of multifunctional materials is booming. The fused deposition modeling (FDM) process is widely used thanks to the ease with which multimaterial parts can be printed. The main limitation of this process is the mechanical properties of the parts obtained. [...] Read more.

Nowadays, the additive manufacturing of multifunctional materials is booming. The fused deposition modeling (FDM) process is widely used thanks to the ease with which multimaterial parts can be printed. The main limitation of this process is the mechanical properties of the parts obtained. New continuous-fiber FDM printers significantly improve mechanical properties. Another limitation is the repeatability of the process. This paper proposes to explore the feasibility of printing parts in continuous carbon fiber and using this fiber as an indicator thanks to the electrical properties of the carbon fiber. The placement of the fiber in the part is based on the paths of a strain gauge. The results show that the resistivity evolves linearly during the elastic period. The gauge factor (GF) increases when the number of passes in the manufacturing plane is low, but repeatability is impacted. However, no correlation is possible during the plastic deformation of the sample. For an equivalent length of carbon fiber, it is preferable to have a strategy of superimposing layers of carbon fiber rather than a single-plane strategy. The mechanical properties remain equivalent but the variation in the electrical signal is greater when the layers are superimposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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14 pages, 6017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Strength and Toughness of Aluminum Laminated Composites through Hybrid Reinforcement Using Dispersion Engineering

by Behzad Sadeghi, Pasquale Cavaliere and Behzad Sadeghian

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(8), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7080332 - 16 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1296

Abstract

In this work, we propose a hybrid approach to solve the challenge of balancing strength and ductility in aluminum (Al) matrix composites. While some elements of our approach have been used in previous studies, such as in situ synthesis and ex situ augmentation, [...] Read more.

In this work, we propose a hybrid approach to solve the challenge of balancing strength and ductility in aluminum (Al) matrix composites. While some elements of our approach have been used in previous studies, such as in situ synthesis and ex situ augmentation, our work is innovative as it combines these techniques with specialized equipment to achieve success. We synthesized nanoscale Al₃BC particles in situ using ultra-fine particles by incorporating carbon nanotubes (CNTs) into elemental powder mixtures, followed by mechanical activation and annealing, to obtain granular (UFG) Al. The resulting in situ nanoscale Al₃BC particles are uniformly dispersed within the UFG Al particles, resulting in improved strength and strain hardening. By innovating the unique combination of nanoscale Al₃BC particles synthesized in situ in UFG Al, we enabled better integration with the matrix and a strong interface. This combination provides a balance of strength and flexibility, which represents a major breakthrough in the study of composites. (Al₃BC, CNT)/UFG Al composites exhibit simultaneous increases in strength (394 MPa) and total elongation (19.7%), indicating increased strength and suggesting that there are promising strengthening effects of in situ/ex situ reinforcement that benefit from the uniform dispersion and the strong interface with the matrix. Potential applications include lightweight and high-strength components for use in aerospace and automotive industries, as well as structural materials for use in advanced mechanical systems that require both high strength and toughness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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16 pages, 4716 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extrusion-Based Additively Manufactured PAEK and PAEK/CF Polymer Composites Performance: Role of Process Parameters on Strength, Toughness and Deflection at Failure

by S. Sharafi, M. H. Santare, J. Gerdes and S. G. Advani

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(4), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7040157 - 11 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2056

Abstract

Poly aryl-ether-ketone (PAEK) belongs to a family of high-performance semicrystalline polymers exhibiting outstanding material properties at high temperatures, making them suitable candidates for metallic part replacement in different industries such as aviation, oil and gas, chemical, and biomedical. Fused filament fabrication is an [...] Read more.

Poly aryl-ether-ketone (PAEK) belongs to a family of high-performance semicrystalline polymers exhibiting outstanding material properties at high temperatures, making them suitable candidates for metallic part replacement in different industries such as aviation, oil and gas, chemical, and biomedical. Fused filament fabrication is an additive manufacturing (AM) method that can be used to produce intricate PAEK and PAEK composite parts and to tailor their mechanical properties such as stiffness, strength and deflection at failure. In this work, we present a methodology to identify the layer design and process parameters that will have the highest potential to affect the mechanical properties of additively manufactured parts, using our previously developed multiscale modeling framework. Five samples for each of the ten identified process conditions were fabricated using a Roboze-Argo 500 version 2 with heated chamber and dual extruder nozzle. The manufactured PAEK and PAEK/carbon fiber samples were tested until failure in an Instron, using a video extensometer system. Each sample was prepared with a speckle pattern for post analysis using digital image correlation (DIC) to measure the strain and displacement over its entire surface. The raster angle and the presence of fibers had the largest influence on the mechanical properties of the AM manufactured parts, and the resulting properties were comparable to the mechanical properties of injection molded parts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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22 pages, 2114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Systematic Approach to Determine the Cutting Parameters of AM Green Zirconia in Finish Milling

by Laurent Spitaels, Hugo Dantinne, Julien Bossu, Edouard Rivière-Lorphèvre and François Ducobu

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(3), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7030112 - 10 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1424

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) opens new possibilities of obtaining ceramic green parts with a tailored complex design at low cost. Meeting the requirements of highly demanding industries (aeronautical and biomedical, for example) is still challenging, even for machining. Hybrid machines can solve this problem [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing (AM) opens new possibilities of obtaining ceramic green parts with a tailored complex design at low cost. Meeting the requirements of highly demanding industries (aeronautical and biomedical, for example) is still challenging, even for machining. Hybrid machines can solve this problem by combining the advantages of both additive and subtractive processes. However, little information is currently available to determine the milling parameters of additively fabricated ceramic green parts. This article proposes a systematic approach to experimentally determine the cutting parameters of green AM zirconia parts. Three tools, one dedicated to thermoplastics, one to composites, and a universal tool, were tested. The tool–material couple standard (NF E 66-520-5) was followed. The lower cost and repeatable generation of smooth surfaces (Ra < 1.6 µm) without material pull-out were the main goals of the study. The universal tool showed few repeatable working points without material pull-out, while the two other tools gave satisfying results. The thermoplastic tool ensured repeatable results of Ra < 0.8 µm at a four times lower cost than the composite tool. Moreover, it exhibited a larger chip thickness range (from 0.003 mm to 0.036 mm). Nevertheless, it generated an uncut zone that must be considered when planning the milling operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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11 pages, 2037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature-Dependent Deformation Behavior of “γ-austenite/δ-ferrite” Composite Obtained through Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing with Austenitic Stainless-Steel Wire

by Elena Astafurova, Galina Maier, Evgenii Melnikov, Sergey Astafurov, Marina Panchenko, Kseniya Reunova, Andrey Luchin and Evgenii Kolubaev

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7020045 - 22 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1368

Abstract

Temperature dependence of tensile deformation behavior and mechanical properties (yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and an elongation-to-failure) of the dual-phase (γ-austenite/δ-ferrite) specimens, obtained through electron-beam additive manufacturing, has been explored for the first time in a wide temperature range T = (77–300) K. [...] Read more.

Temperature dependence of tensile deformation behavior and mechanical properties (yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and an elongation-to-failure) of the dual-phase (γ-austenite/δ-ferrite) specimens, obtained through electron-beam additive manufacturing, has been explored for the first time in a wide temperature range T = (77–300) K. The dual-phase structures with a dendritic morphology of δ-ferrite (γ + 14%δ) and with a coarse globular δ-phase (γ + 6%δ) are typical of the as-built specimens and those subjected to a post-production solid–solution treatment, respectively. In material with lower δ-ferrite content, the lower values of the yield strength in the whole temperature range and the higher elongation of the specimens at T > 250 K have been revealed. Tensile strength and stages of plastic flow of the materials do not depend on the δ-ferrite fraction and its morphology, but the characteristics of strain-induced γ→α′ and γ→ε→α′ martensitic transformations and strain-hardening values are different for two types of the specimens. A new approach has been applied for the analysis of deformation behavior of additively fabricated Cr-Ni steels. Mechanical properties and plastic deformation of the dual-phase (γ + δ) steels produced through electron beam additive manufacturing have been described from the point of view of composite materials. Both types of the δ-ferrite inclusions, dendritic lamellae and globular coarse particles, change the stress distribution in the bulk of the materials during tensile testing, assist the defect accumulation and partially suppress strain-induced martensitic transformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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17 pages, 5094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties of PLA Specimens Obtained by Additive Manufacturing Process Reinforced with Flax Fibers

by Ana Paulo, Jorge Santos, João da Rocha, Rui Lima and João Ribeiro

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7010027 - 10 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2419

Abstract

Although polylactic acid (PLA) is one of the most used materials in additive manufacturing, its mechanical properties are quite limiting for its practical application, therefore, to improve these properties it is frequent to add fibers and, in this way, create a more resistant [...] Read more.

Although polylactic acid (PLA) is one of the most used materials in additive manufacturing, its mechanical properties are quite limiting for its practical application, therefore, to improve these properties it is frequent to add fibers and, in this way, create a more resistant composite material. In this paper, the authors developed PLA composites reinforced with flax fibers to evaluate the improvement of tensile and flexural strength. The experimental design of experiments was based on the L18 Taguchi array where the control factors were the extruder temperature (three levels), number of strands (three levels), infill percentage of the specimens (three levels), and whether the flax fiber had surface chemical treatment. The tensile and flexural specimens were made on a 3D printing machine and was a mold was developed to fix and align the fiber strands during the printing process. The tensile and flexural experimental tests were performed in agreement with ASTM D638.14 and ISO 14125 standards, respectively. Analyzing the results, it was verified that the surface chemical treatment (NaOH) of the fiber did not show any influence in the mechanical properties of the composites; in contrast, the infill density demonstrated a huge influence for the improvement of mechanical strength. The maximum values of tensile and bending stress were 50 MPa and 73 MPa, respectively. The natural fiber reinforcement can improve the mechanical properties of the PLA composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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14 pages, 4415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication Temperature-Related Porosity Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Additively Manufactured CFRP Composites

by Olusanmi Adeniran, Norman Osa-uwagboe, Weilong Cong and Monsuru Ramoni

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7010012 - 5 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1926

Abstract

The use of additive manufacturing in fabricating composite components has been gaining traction in the past decade. However, some issues with mechanical performance still need to be resolved. The issue of material porosity remains a pertinent one which needs more understanding to be [...] Read more.

The use of additive manufacturing in fabricating composite components has been gaining traction in the past decade. However, some issues with mechanical performance still need to be resolved. The issue of material porosity remains a pertinent one which needs more understanding to be able to come up with more viable solutions. Different researchers have examined the subject; however, more research to quantitatively determine fabrication temperatures effects at the micro-scale are still needed. This study employed micro-CT scan analysis to quantitatively compare fabrication temperatures effect at 230 °C, 250 °C, 270 °C, and 290 °C on the mechanical properties of AM fabricated carbon-fiber-reinforces plastic (CFRP) composites, testing carbon fiber-reinforced polyamide (CF-PA) and carbon fiber-reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (CF-ABS) samples. This micro-CT examination followed an SEM evaluation, which was used to determine temperature effects on interlayer and intralayer porosity generation. The porosity volume was related to the mechanical properties, in which it was determined how temperatures influence porosity volumes. It was also determined that fabrication temperature generally affects semicrystalline composites more than amorphous composites. The overall porosity volumes from the interlayer and intralayer voids were determined, with the interlayer voids being more influential in influencing the mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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14 pages, 8608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Additive Manufacturing of C/C-SiC Ceramic Matrix Composites by Automated Fiber Placement of Continuous Fiber Tow in Polymer with Pyrolysis and Reactive Silicon Melt Infiltration

by Corson L. Cramer, Bola Yoon, Michael J. Lance, Ercan Cakmak, Quinn A. Campbell and David J. Mitchell

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(12), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6120359 - 23 Nov 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3555

Abstract

An additive manufacturing process for fabricating ceramic matrix composites has been developed based on the C/C-SiC system. Automated fiber placement of the continuous carbon fibers in a polyether ether ketone matrix was performed to consolidate the carbon fibers into a printed preform. Pyrolysis [...] Read more.

An additive manufacturing process for fabricating ceramic matrix composites has been developed based on the C/C-SiC system. Automated fiber placement of the continuous carbon fibers in a polyether ether ketone matrix was performed to consolidate the carbon fibers into a printed preform. Pyrolysis was performed to convert the polymer matrix to porous carbon, and then Si was introduced by reactive melt infiltration to convert a portion of the carbon matrix to silicon carbide. The densities and microstructures were characterized after each step during the processing, and the mechanical properties were measured. The C/C-SiC composites exhibited a porosity of 10–20%, characteristic flexural strength of 234.91 MPa, and Weibull modulus of 3.21. The composites displayed toughness via a significant displacement to failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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11 pages, 2760 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Construction of a Low-Cost-High-Accessibility 3D Printing Machine for Producing Plastic Components

by Kajogbola R. Ajao, Segun E. Ibitoye, Adedire D. Adesiji and Esther T. Akinlabi

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(9), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6090265 - 9 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3775

Abstract

The additive manufacturing process creates objects directly by stacking layers of material on each other until the required product is obtained. The application of additive manufacturing technology for teaching and research purposes is still limited and unpopular in developing countries, due to costs [...] Read more.

The additive manufacturing process creates objects directly by stacking layers of material on each other until the required product is obtained. The application of additive manufacturing technology for teaching and research purposes is still limited and unpopular in developing countries, due to costs and lack of accessibility. In this study, an extruding-based 3D printing additive manufacturing technology was employed to design and construct a low-cost-high-accessibility 3D printing machine to manufacture plastic objects. The machine was designed using SolidWorks 2020 version with a 10 × 10 × 10 cm³ build volume. The fabrication was carried out using locally available materials, such as PVC pipes for the frame, plywood for the bed, and Zinc Oxide plaster for the bed surface. Repetier firmware was the operating environment for devices running on the computer operating system. Cura was used as the slicing software. The fabricated machine was tested, and the printer produced 3D components with desired structural dimensions. The fabricated 3D printer was used to manufacture some plastic objects using PLA filament. The recommended distance between the nozzle tip and the bed is 0.1 mm. The constructed 3D printer is affordable and accessible, especially in developing nations where 3D printing applications are limited and unpopular. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

33 pages, 31416 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Three-Dimensional Printing of Composites: A Review of the Finite Element/Finite Volume Modelling of the Process

by Theodor Florian Zach and Mircea Cristian Dudescu

J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8(4), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8040146 - 12 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4030

Abstract

Composite materials represent the evolution of material science and technology, maximizing the properties for high-end industry applications. The fields concerned include aerospace and defense, automotive, or naval industries. Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies are increasingly growing in market shares due to the elimination of [...] Read more.

Composite materials represent the evolution of material science and technology, maximizing the properties for high-end industry applications. The fields concerned include aerospace and defense, automotive, or naval industries. Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies are increasingly growing in market shares due to the elimination of shape barriers, a plethora of available materials, and the reduced costs. The AM technologies of composite materials combine the two growing trends in manufacturing, combining the advantages of both, with a specific enhancement being the elimination of the need for mold manufacturing for composites, or even post-curing treatments. The challenge of AM composites is to compete with their conventional counterparts. The aim of the current paper is to present the additive manufacturing process across different spectrums of finite element analyses (FEA). The first outcomes are building definition (support definition) and the optimization of deposition trajectories. In addition, the multi-physics of melting/solidification using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are performed to predict the fiber orientation and extrusion profiles. The process modelling continues with the displacement/temperature distribution, which influences porosity, warping, and residual stresses that influence characteristics of the component. This leads to the tuning of the technological parameters, thus improving the manufacturing process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Advanced Composites)

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