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Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins

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A special issue of Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (ISSN 2077-1312). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine Biology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 May 2022) | Viewed by 36584

Image courtesy of Naomasa OSHIRO

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Naomasa Oshiro

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Division of Biomedical Food Research, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki 210-9501, Kanagawa, Japan
Interests: analysis of marine biotoxins; chemistry and etiology of marine biotoxins; epidemiology of seafood poisoning; ciguatera poisoning
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Prof. Dr. Ana Gago-Martínez

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Department Analytical and Food Chemistry, Biomedical Research Center (CINBIO) Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain
Interests: analytical methods for algal toxins; chromatography; mass spectrometry; sample preparation; method validation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Aurelia Tubaro

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Guest Editor

Department of Life Science, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio, 6, 34127 Trieste, Italy
Interests: toxicological studies; mechanism of toxicity; dermotoxicity; natural toxins; nanotoxicology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Marine biotoxins are bioactive natural products that are primarily produced by microalgae and bacteria. These toxins affect aquatic organisms and human health. The blooming of dinoflagellate or diatom species leads to the poisoning of plankton-feeding bivalve mollusks, inducing paralytic, diarrheic, neurologic, and amnesic shellfish poisoning. Following the elucidation of the appearance patterns of these microalgae and the principal toxin structures, the risk of shellfish poisoning by monitoring plankton and toxins has been avoided.

Palytoxin analogs including ovatoxins are responsible for respiratory disorders and dermatitis in the exposure of people to marine aerosols during Ostreopsis cf. ovata blooms as well as to some aquarium containing corals. Also, they may be implicated in clupeotoxism food poisoning due to the consumption of Clupeidae fish.

While important progress has been made recently in the identification of the main toxins associated with ciguatera and pufferfish poisoning, further investigation on the identification and structural elucidation of new analogs, transmission, and accumulation modes is required. In addition, the isolation and structure elucidation of Indian Ocean ciguatoxin, charcheatoxin, and the substances implicated in Haff disease and similar type of intoxication are issues of interest in this field.

This Special Issue aims to present a collection of new findings on the chemical, toxicological, and etiological aspects of marine biotoxins, as well as observations and evidence in health risk assessment, analysis, and management, which might contribute to the research areas mentioned above. Topics of interest include isolation and structure elucidation, the development and/or validation of analysis methods, the monitoring of toxins, toxicology and mechanisms of action, outbreak reports, and epidemiological observations.

Dr. Naomasa Oshiro
Prof. Dr. Ana Gago-Martínez
Prof. Dr. Aurelia Tubaro
Guest Editors

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Keywords

shellfish poisons (PSP, DSP, ASP and NSP)
ciguatoxin
palytoxin
tetrodotoxin
phycotoxin
cyanotoxin
toxicology
food safety
epidemiology

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

5 pages, 206 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins

by Naomasa Oshiro, Ana Gago-Martínez and Aurelia Tubaro

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(2), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12020236 - 29 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1442

Abstract

Marine biotoxins refer to bioactive natural products primarily produced by microalgae and bacteria and may affect aquatic organisms and human health [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

Research

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13 pages, 2937 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Analytical Studies on Ciguateric Fish in Okinawa, Japan (II): The Grouper Variola albimarginata

by Naomasa Oshiro, Hiroya Nagasawa, Mio Nishimura, Kyoko Kuniyoshi, Naoki Kobayashi, Yoshiko Sugita-Konishi, Tsuyoshi Ikehara, Katsunori Tachihara and Takeshi Yasumoto

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11(2), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11020242 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2826

Abstract

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) refers to an illness caused by ingesting fish that have accumulated ciguatoxins (CTXs). CFP frequently occurs in the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. In Japan, CFP occurs sporadically but constantly in Okinawa and the Amami Islands. The grouper Variola albimarginata is regarded to be safe for consumption. To assess the real risk of V. albimarginata, we analyzed 133 specimens of the fish in Okinawa using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). Ciguatoxin-1B, 54-deoxyciguatoxin-1B, and 52-epi-54-deoxyciguatoxin-1B were detected in 28 specimens (21%). In 11 of these specimens (8%), the CTX levels exceeded the US FDA guidance level (0.01 µg/kg CTX1B equivalent). However, only one fish (<1%) was found to have levels above the recommended level in Japan (0.175 μg/kg CTX1B equivalent). The amount of CTXs in the flesh (280 g) of the most toxic specimen (0.225 μg/kg) did not reach the level needed to cause illness. The CFP risk due to the consumption of this species was thus considered to be low in Okinawa, supporting local belief. The CTX levels in the flesh were positively correlated with standard length, body weight, and age. The total CTX levels significantly fluctuated between the male and the female of the species. The estimated annual catch of V. albimarginata in Okinawa and Yaeyama Islands was 4909 kg or 13,636 fish. As many as 1227 fish had levels over the US FDA guidance level, but only 136 fish had levels above the Japanese recommendation. Risk management based on the Japanese recommendation level seems to be effective in protecting public health and enabling appropriate exploitation of fishery resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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16 pages, 1685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Primary Structure and Conformation of a Tetrodotoxin-Binding Protein in the Hemolymph of Non-Toxic Shore Crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus

by Yuji Nagashima, Kenta Fujimoto, Masahiko Okai, Yoichiro Kitani, Aya Yoshinaga-Kiriake and Shoichiro Ishizaki

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11(1), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11010181 - 11 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2176

Abstract

Tetrodotoxin (TTX)-binding proteins are present in toxic TTX-bearing animals, such as pufferfish and gastropods. These may prevent autotoxicity. However, TTX-binding proteins are also found in the nontoxic marine shore crab, Hemigrapsus sanguineus. Here, we isolated the TTX-binding protein, HSTBP (Hemigrapsus sanguineus TTX-binding protein), from the hemolymph of H. sanguineus and elucidated its primary structure using cDNA cloning. HSTBP, a 400 kDa acidic glycoprotein by gel filtration high-performance liquid chromatography, comprises 3 subunits, 88 kDa (subunit-1), 65 kDa (subunit-2), and 26 kDa (subunit-3) via sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under reduced conditions. The open reading frame of the cDNA comprises 5049 base pairs encoding 1683 amino acid residues, and the mature protein contains 1650 amino acid residues from Arg³⁴ to Ser¹⁶⁸³. The three subunits are arranged in tandem in the following order: subunit-3 (Arg³⁴-Gln²⁶¹), subunit-1 (Asp²⁶²-Phe¹¹³⁸), and subunit-2 (Val¹¹³⁹-Ser¹⁶⁸³). A BLAST homology search showed weak similarity of HSTBP to clotting proteins of crustaceans (29–40%). SMART analysis revealed a von Willebrand factor (vWF)-type (⇒delete hyphen) D domain at Phe¹³⁸⁷-Gly¹⁵⁴⁴. We confirmed that the recombinant protein of HSTBP subunit-2 containing the vWF-type (⇒delete hyphen) D domain bound to TTX at a molecular ratio of 1:1. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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15 pages, 2870 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Preparation of Ciguatoxin Reference Materials from Canary Islands (Spain) and Madeira Archipelago (Portugal) Fish

by David Castro, Pablo Estévez, José Manuel Leao-Martins, Robert W. Dickey, Natalia García-Álvarez, Fernando Real, Pedro Reis Costa and Ana Gago-Martínez

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(6), 835; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10060835 - 20 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3540

Abstract

Ciguatoxins (CTXs) are naturally occurring neurotoxins that can accumulate in fish and cause Ciguatera Poisoning (CP) in seafood consumers. Ciguatoxic fish have been detected in tropical and subtropical regions of the world including the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the Caribbean Sea, and more recently in the northeast Atlantic Ocean. The biogeographic distribution of ciguatoxic fish appears to be expanding; however, the paucity of CTX standards and reference materials limits the ability of public health authorities to monitor for these toxins in seafood supply chains. Recent reports establish that Caribbean Ciguatoxin-1 (C-CTX1) is the principal toxin responsible for CP cases and outbreaks in the northeast Atlantic Ocean and that C-CTX congener profiles in contaminated fish samples match those from the Caribbean Sea. Therefore, in this work, C-CTX reference materials were prepared from fish obtained from the northeast Atlantic Ocean. The collection of fish specimens (e.g., amberjack, grouper, or snapper) was screened for CTX-like toxicity using the in vitro sodium channel mouse neuroblastoma cytotoxicity assay (N2a cell assay). Muscle and liver tissues from toxic specimens were pooled for extraction and purified products were ultimately profiled and quantified by comparison with authentic C-CTX1 using LC-MS/MS. This work presents a detailed protocol for the preparation of purified C-CTX reference materials to enable continued research and monitoring of the ciguatera public health hazard. To carry out this work, C-CTX1 was isolated and purified from fish muscle and liver tissues obtained from the Canary Islands (Spain) and Madeira archipelago (Portugal). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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14 pages, 4042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Extensive Survey of Ciguatoxins on Grouper Variola louti from the Ryukyu Islands, Japan, Using Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)

by Naomasa Oshiro, Hiroya Nagasawa, Miharu Watanabe, Mio Nishimura, Kyoko Kuniyoshi, Naoki Kobayashi, Yoshiko Sugita-Konishi, Hiroshi Asakura, Katsunori Tachihara and Takeshi Yasumoto

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(3), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10030423 - 15 Mar 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3256

Abstract

Ingesting fish contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs) originating from epibenthic dinoflagellates causes ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP). CFP occurs mainly in the tropical and subtropical Indo–Pacific region and the Caribbean Sea. Furthermore, it occurs sporadically in Japan, especially in the Ryukyu Islands between Taiwan and Kyushu, Japan. Variola louti is the most frequently implicated fish with a suggested toxin profile, consisting of ciguatoxin-1B and two deoxy congeners. Therefore, using the liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), we analyzed CTXs in the flesh of 154 individuals from various locations and detected CTXs in 99 specimens (64%). In 65 fish (43%), CTX levels exceeded the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidance level (0.01 µg/kg). Furthermore, in four specimens (3%), the guideline level in Japan (>0.18 µg/kg) was met. Additionally, although the highest total CTX level was 0.376 µg/kg, the consumption of 180 g of this specimen was assumed to cause CFP. Moreover, only CTX1B, 52-epi-54-deoxyCTX1B, and 54-deoxyCTX1B were detected, with the relative contribution of the three CTX1B analogs to the total toxin content (35 ± 7.7 (SD)%, 27 ± 8.1%, and 38 ± 5.6%, respectively) being similar to those reported in this region in a decade ago. Subsequently, the consistency of the toxin profile in V. louti was confirmed using many specimens from a wide area. As observed, total CTX levels were correlated with fish sizes, including standard length (r = 0.503, p = 3.08 × 10⁻¹¹), body weight (r = 0.503, p = 3.01 × 10⁻¹¹), and estimated age (r = 0.439, p = 3.81 × 10⁻⁷) of the specimens. Besides, although no correlation was observed between condition factor (CF) and total CTX levels, a significance difference was observed (p = 0.039) between the groups of skinnier and fattier fish, separated by the median CF (3.04). Results also showed that the CF of four specimens with the highest CTX level (>0.18 µg/kg) ranged between 2.49 and 2.87, and they were skinnier than the average (3.03) and median of all specimens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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8 pages, 1421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tetrodotoxin Retention in the Toxic Goby Yongeichthys criniger

by Ryohei Tatsuno, Miwako Shikina, Yuta Yamamoto, Yoko Kanahara, Tomohiro Takatani and Osamu Arakawa

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(2), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10020191 - 31 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2312

Abstract

To investigate tetrodotoxin (TTX) retention by the toxic goby Yongeichthys criniger, rearing experiments feeding nontoxic diets were conducted using 12 (Group I) and 17 (Group II) specimens collected from a natural environment. The specimens were reared in an aquarium with aeration and fed a diet lacking TTX for 60 days. Specimens were removed at 0, 20, 40, and 60 days (Group I) or 0, 30, and 60 days (Group II) after initiation of rearing. Liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry revealed that whole-body concentrations and amounts of TTX decreased with increasing rearing duration in Group I. There were similar decreases in Group II, but the trend differed among tissues; the concentrations and amounts of TTX in the skin exhibited the greatest decreases. The results imply that Y. criniger has low TTX retention ability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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12 pages, 3000 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

High Levels of Tetrodotoxin in the Flesh, Usually an Edible Part of the Pufferfish Takifugu flavipterus, Caused by Migration from the Skin and the Regional Characteristics of Toxin Accumulation

by Naomasa Oshiro, Kyoko Kuniyoshi, Shigeyoshi Yamamoto, Ayano Hotta, Takuma Yamada, Takafumi Suzuki, Noriko Sugita, Keiichi Matsuura, Akie Nakashima, Yoichi Anzai and Hiroshi Asakura

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(11), 1312; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9111312 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2836

Abstract

The consumption of a pufferfish, Takifugu flavipterus or komonfugu in Japanese, formerly known as Takifugu poecilonotus, is popular in Japan. However, T. flavipterus is frequently involved in cases of tetrodotoxin (TTX) poisoning in Japan. Although victims have usually consumed inedible parts, some cases are related to consumption of flesh. To improve the risk management of pufferfish poisoning, we studied TTX level in the flesh and skin of T. flavipterus. Ninety-seven specimens obtained from the Seto Inland Sea and landed in Fukuoka Prefecture were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The flesh from six specimens was toxic (>10 MU/g = 2.2 mg/kg): one was in poor condition (not freeze–thawed); three were freeze–thawed before sample preparation; and two freshly prepared and in good condition (not freeze–thawed). The fillets were divided into outer and inner portions; the TTX levels in the outer portions were notably higher. The skin of the six specimens was moderately to extremely toxic: 165 MU/g (36.3 mg/kg) in the fresh specimen not in good condition, 600–950 MU/g (132–200 mg/kg) in freeze–thawed specimens, and 4500 and 6000 MU/g (990 and 1320 mg/kg) in the two fresh specimens. We concluded that TTX in the flesh migrated from the highly toxic skin. In addition, TTX levels in the skin appeared to be regionally specific. We recommend that toxic portions of T. flavipterus are removed as soon as possible after individuals are caught, and that fish from known highly toxic areas are not consumed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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8 pages, 957 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Specification of the Okadaic Acid Equivalent for Okadaic Acid, Dinophysistoxin-1, and Dinophysistoxin-2 Based on Protein Phosphatase 2A Inhibition and Cytotoxicity Assays Using Neuro 2A Cell Line

by Tsuyoshi Ikehara, Kazuya Chikanishi and Naomasa Oshiro

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(10), 1140; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9101140 - 17 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2685

Abstract

Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is a globally occurring disease threatening public health and trade. The causative toxins, okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), and dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2) are collectively called OAs, and are quantified using the LC-MS/MS method. The hazardous effect of total OAs is expressed as the sum of OA equivalents defined for respective OAs based on mouse lethality, produced by either intraperitoneal (OAip) or oral administration (OAor). OAs are potent inhibitors of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) and are cytotoxic, necessitating expansion of the concept of OA equivalents to all relevant bioactivities. In this study, we determined OA equivalents for respective OA members in PP2A inhibition and cytotoxicity assays. To secure result credibility, we used certified OAs, reference materials, and PP2A produced using genetic engineering. The relative ratio of the OA equivalents determined by PP2A inhibition assays for OA, DTX1, and DTX2 were 1.0:1.6:0.3, while the ratio determined using the cytotoxicity assays indicated 1.0:1.5:0.5. OA equivalents showed a similar tendency in the PP2A inhibition and cytotoxicity assays, and matched better with oral toxicity data than intraperitoneal toxicity in mice. The PP2A inhibition assay, which measures the core activity of the OAs, suggested a higher OA equivalent for DTX1 than that currently used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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17 pages, 2281 KiB

Open AccessArticle

De Novo Accumulation of Tetrodotoxin and Its Analogs in Pufferfish and Newt and Dosage-Driven Accumulation of Toxins in Newt: Tissue Distribution and Anatomical Localization

by Shigeru Sato, Rika Kawaura, Kaito Togashi, Nanami Mizusawa, Ko Yasumoto, Kentaro Takada, Masafumi Amano and Shugo Watabe

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(9), 1004; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9091004 - 14 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2496

Abstract

The present study was undertaken to determine the amounts of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its analogs (TTXs) in various tissues of toxin-bearing pufferfish (Canthigaster revulata and Takifugu flavipterus) and newt (Cynops pyrrhogaster) using specific polyclonal antibodies against TTXs, and to compare the obtained results with those mainly determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). The anatomical localization of TTXs in these animals was also demonstrated immunohistochemically using the above-mentioned antibody. The ratio of the total amount of TTXs determined by ELISA to that determined by HPLC-FLD changed depending on the tissues examined in pufferfish. Such differences were also observed with the newt in tissue- and individual-dependent manners. Furthermore, TTXs, as well as decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX), an analog of saxitoxin (STX), were traced for their dynamic changes in tissue distribution, when the newt was fed authentic toxins or toxic animal tissues exogenously, demonstrating that a TTX analog, 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX, and dcSTX were not metabolized into TTX or STX. TTXs-immunoreactive (ir) staining was observed in the pancreas region of the hepatopancreas, the oocytes at the perinucleolus stage, the sac-like tissues just outside the serous membrane of the intestine, and the gland-like structure of the skin, but not in the muscles of pufferfish. TTXs-ir staining was also detected in the mature glands in the dermis of the adult and regenerated tail, but not in the liver, intestine, testis and ovary of the adult newt. TTXs-ir staining was detected in the epithelial cells of the intestine, the ovary, the mucous cells, and the dermis of the TTXs-administered newt. These results suggest that TTXs absorbed from the environment are distributed to various organs or tissues in a species-specific manner, regardless of whether or not these are metabolized in the bodies of toxin-bearing animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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9 pages, 1421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

LC–MS/MS Analysis of Ciguatoxins Revealing the Regional and Species Distinction of Fish in the Tropical Western Pacific

by Naomasa Oshiro, Takumi Tomikawa, Kyoko Kuniyoshi, Akira Ishikawa, Hajime Toyofuku, Takashi Kojima and Hiroshi Asakura

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(3), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9030299 - 8 Mar 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3423

Abstract

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) is one of the most frequently reported seafood poisoning diseases. It is endemic to the tropical region and occurs most commonly in the regions around the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Caribbean Sea. The principal toxins causing CFP are ciguatoxins (CTXs). In the Pacific region, more than 20 analogs of CTXs have been identified to date. Based on their skeletal structures, they are classified into CTX1B-type and CTX3C-type toxins. We have previously reported species-specific and regional-specific toxin profiles. In this study, the levels and profiles of CTXs in fish present in the tropical western Pacific regions were analyzed using the liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) technique. Forty-two fish specimens, belonging to the categories of snappers, groupers, Spanish mackerel, and moray eel, were purchased from various places such as Fiji, the Philippines, Thailand, and Taiwan. Only the fish captured from Fijian coastal waters contained detectable amounts of CTXs. The toxin levels in the fish species found along the coastal regions of the Viti Levu Island, the main island in Fiji, and the toxin profiles were significantly different from those of the fish species present in other coastal regions. The toxin levels and profiles varied among the different fish samples collected from different coastal areas. Based on the toxin levels and toxin profiles, the coast was demarcated into three zones. In Zone-1, which covers the northern coast of the main island and the regions of the Malake Island and Korovau, CTXs in fish were below the detection level. In Zone-2, CTX3C-type toxins were present in low levels in the fish. CTX1B-type and CTX3C-type toxins co-occurred in the fish present in Zone-3. The toxin profiles may have reflected the variation in Gambierdiscus spp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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Review

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18 pages, 1430 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Functional and Structural Biological Methods for Palytoxin Detection

by Michela Carlin, Marco Pelin, Cristina Ponti, Silvio Sosa and Aurelia Tubaro

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(7), 916; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10070916 - 1 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2527

Abstract

Palytoxin (PLTX) and its analogues are marine polyethers identified in Palythoa and Zoanthus corals, Ostreopsis dinoflagellates, and Trichodesmium cyanobacteria. Humans can be exposed to these toxins by different routes with a series of adverse effects but the most severe risk is associated with poisonings by the consumption of edible marine organisms accumulating these toxins, as occurs in (sub)-tropical areas. In temperate areas, adverse effects ascribed to PLTXs have been recorded after inhalation of marine aerosols and/or cutaneous contact with seawater during Ostreopsis blooms, as well as during cleaning procedures of Palythoa-containing home aquaria. Besides instrumental analytical methods, in the last years a series of alternative or complementary methods based on biological/biochemical tools have been developed for the rapid and specific PLTX detection required for risk assessment. These methods are usually sensitive, cost- and time-effective, and do not require highly specialized operators. Among them, structural immunoassays and functional cell-based assays are reviewed. The availability of specific anti-PLTX antibodies allowed the development of different sensitive structural assays, suitable for its detection also in complex matrices, such as mussels. In addition, knowing the mechanism of PLTX action, a series of functional identification methods has been developed. Despite some of them being limited by matrix effects and specificity issues, biological methods for PLTX detection represent a feasible tool, suitable for rapid screening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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15 pages, 8566 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Tetramine in the Salivary Glands of Marine Carnivorous Snails: Analysis, Distribution, and Toxicological Aspects

by Kazuo Shiomi

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10010006 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4038

Abstract

Focusing on tetramine, tetramethylammonium ion, contained in the salivary glands of marine carnivorous snails, this paper gives an overview of analytical methods, distribution in marine snails, and toxicological aspects. Some Neptunea snails have often caused food poisoning in North Atlantic and Northeast Asia regions, especially in Japan. The toxin of both N. arthritica and N. antiqua was first proven to be tetramine in 1960. Subsequent research on marine snail tetramine has progressed with the development of analytical methods. Of the various methods developed, the LC/ESI-MS method is most recommended for tetramine analysis in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and versatility. Accumulated data show that tetramine is ubiquitously contained at high concentrations (usually several mg/g) in the salivary glands of Neptunea snails. Tetramine is also found in the muscle and viscera of Neptunea snails and even in the salivary gland of marine snails other than Neptunea species, although mostly at low levels (below 0.1 mg/g). Interestingly, the major toxin in the salivary glands of Fusitriton oregonensis and Hemifusus tuba is distinguishable from tetramine. In tetramine poisoning, diverse symptoms attributable to the ganglion-blocking action of tetramine, such as visual disturbance, headache, dizziness, abdominal pain, and nausea, develop within 30 min after ingestion of snails because of rapid absorption of tetramine from the gastrointestinal tract. The symptoms are generally mild and subside in a short time (within 24 at most) because of rapid excretion through the kidney. However, it should be kept in mind that tetramine poisoning can be severe in patients with kidney dysfunction, as shown by two recent case reports. Finally, given the diffusion of tetramine from the salivary gland to the muscle during boiling and thawing of snails, removal of salivary glands from live snails is essential to avoid tetramine poisoning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Toxicology and Etiology of Marine Biotoxins)

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